British Society

Ethnicity

'aspects of relationships between groups which consider themselves and are regarded by others, as being culturally distinctive; (Eriksen, 2001) -Can be ranked hierarchically in society

Legal Changes to Secular Britain

Abortion law allows abortion up to 28 weeks (later amended to 24 weeks). -Illegitimacy law removes stigma on being born outside marriage. -Divorce law 1971 (Divorce Reform Act) makes divorce available due to breakdown of marriage. -Homosexuality law (Sexual Offences Act, 1967) makes sex between consenting adults legal. -Theatres Act 1968 removes censorship in British theatres, allows full frontal nudity on stage

Individualist explanations for poverty

David Marsland, culture of dependency (1989-1996), individuals copy those around them, welfare state reduces the will to work, welfare too generous, when it does not increase with inflation, poor get poorer -Oscar Lewis, culture of poverty - Charles Murray, culture creates an underclass (1990), individuals and groups learn to be poor, the underclass are a group set apart, socially excluded

Factors of the Workplace Revolution

Demographic Factors- Birthrate declines with contraception, industrial growth demands female workers -Changing attitudes to work, women from the 60s no longer want to be housewives alone, influence of feminism -Industrial factors, characterised from a gradual shift from agricultural work to service industry, decline in manufacturing industries. 85% of service industries filled by women 1975-1985. Marked shift from blue collar to white collar work, (knowledge society)

Waves of Feminism

First Wave - from Wollstonecraft to the suffragettes, political liberation -Second Wave, From the 1960s, Betty Friedan to the Seperatists, sexual liberation -Third wave, backlash. From 1990s, difference feminists to postmodernists, identify politics and the search for self, anorexia as the metaphor for the age (Anthony Giddens)

Early Immigration Reactions

First large-scale immigration from Ireland, from 19th century, easily assimilated because of race, but became an 'outsider' group, the butt of jokes. -Mass migration from Commonwealth began in early 1950s, average numbers 50,000 p.a. since: -British EM population 1951: 80,000 -British EM population 2001: 4,635,000 -Commonwealth had free movement between countries and Britain -Limited by 1962 Act -Commonwealth Immigrants Act -Aim to limit Commonwealth immigration for the first time. -Royal Commission on Population (1949) recommended immigration into Britain should be welcomed 'without reserve'. -One condition - immigrants were to be of 'good stock and were not prevented by their race or religion from intermarrying with the host population and becoming merged into it'.

Race

Phenotype (characteristics) and genotype (underlying genetics)

Hate Crime

Police figures showed in 2006-7 5619 hate crimes (injury), 4,350 hate crimes (no injury), 28,485 racial/religious harassment. -3,565 cases of criminal damage. -Typical offender - young, white male (homophobic offenders aged 16-20, race offenders under 30). -Crimes occur close to victim's home, offences between 3pm and midnight, offenders live in same neighbourhood as victim

Effects of the Sexual Revolution

Pros -Sex for pleasure not procreation, women gain power from pill, increased sexual awareness and independence. Moves from private to public with women taking over in sex industry. Sexual experimentation -Women's Liberation, Women move into the workplace, universities, the law, politics. Divorce law allows women to end unhappy violent marriages -Cons -Women later report was joyless, men exploit new freedom, STDs and Single mothers -Rise of hardcore pornography, Feminists accuse men of exploiting women, and point to a rise of violence towards women More Effects -Sexism, second wave feminists campaign against feminism, role of independent women -AIDs, 7,500 cases of HIV reported, heterosexuals and homosexuals blamed, promiscuity blamed. Leads to backlash (new puritanism)

Assimilation

requires minority ethnic groups adapt to an imagined homogenous British national culture.

Why Welfare Started

the idealism of the 19th and early 20th centuries when welfare to cure illness, reduce mortality, reduce poverty and homelessness -19th century Poor Law (part of Utilitarian policies to reduce the burden of the poor on the state) -Late 19th century/early 20th century reforms - first state pension schemes. -British approach to welfare modelled on Bismarck's social reforms in Germany. -Aimed to create 'security from cradle to grave'. -Aimed to eradicate 5 evils - 'Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness. -Aim to create an economy without mass unemployment, to end child poverty

Relative Deprivation

-'Individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or at least, widely encouraged or approved, in the societies to which they belong. -Their resources are so seriously below those commanded by the average individual or family that they are, in effect, excluded from the ordinary living patterns, customs and activities'. [Townsend, 1979]. -Townsend used the term 'exclusion' which from 1998 is a new term which includes deprivation and explains the effects of deprivation on individuals, groups and society .

Poverty and Social Exclusion

-'Social exclusion' first used in France -Social exclusion is 'what happens when people or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime, ill health and family breakdown'. -Social exclusion is multidimensional, it is believed to be progressive, and it pulls individuals and groups away from 'normal' social relations and institutions thereby preventing them from participating in the normal activities of life which others around them enjoy. -Social exclusion then is about being 'shut out' or marginalised in society. -It is about denial of access to basic economic, social and cultural systems and institutions which afford citizens full integration in their society and the benefits that go with that. -Seen in inner city urban areas, high concentration of council housing. -Whole communities labelled as 'no-go' areas - ghettoization. -Social exclusion cumulative - higher concentrations of factors, the higher the social exclusion -Also the socially excluded can become the target of extremist ideologies - case of terrorism.

20th Century Changes to Women's Lives

-1928 Women get the vote -Work on the home front in WW2 -But 1950s women were not needed in the military or workplace any more. -Parenting manuals from the 1950s told women about the virtues of motherhood and wifedom. Women internalised it and it became their essential female 'essence'. -Scholars turned this into a scientific necessity. (Bowlby maternal deprivation) -In 1950s - sex was taboo - pregnancy led to being forced out of home, babies taken away and adopted, enter a mental hospital -In 1960 - the contraceptive pill was discovered. -In 1967 - no fault divorce law on the statute book

New Migrant Workers

-1948 - SS Empire Windrush brought 417 immigrant workers from -Jamaica, West Indies -This was referred to as 'coloured' immigration. -Believed to be 'temporary'. -Employers needed cheap mass unskilled labour (arms manufacture, consumer goods). -Some immigrant groups have actively sought maintenance of a strict cultural identity.

Immigration + Citizenship

-1968 Commonwealth Immigration Act. -Links Commonwealth membership to race. -Some Passport holders would have right of entry and abode in Britain, some would not. -You had to be born and naturalised in the UK or have a parent or grandparent who had been born, adopted or naturalised in the UK. -Fear was 200,000 Kenyan Asians would try to escape violence by coming to Britain. -1971 Act - Work permits required for entry -1981 Nationality Act - Child born in UK becomes a citizen is parents are citizens/born in UK.

England and Wales Citizenship Survey (2007)

-85% of white British said they felt 'fairly or strongly that they belonged to Britain'. -Answers to the same question: -89% of Indian/Pakistani -87% of Bangladeshi -84% of black African/Caribbean.

Welfare Payments to Recipients

-Also at a flat rate - not enough to reach subsistence in most cases. -Had to be EXTRA benefits for those in poverty to supplement benefits. -This was right from the beginning of the system. -Supplementary benefits were MEANS-TESTED from 1948

Government Policies that Helped Women

-Anti-Discrimination Legislation -The Equal Pay Act, 1970 -It is unlawful to offer different pay and conditions for the same work, work rates as equivalent in the same employment or work of equal value. -The Sex Discrimination Act, 1975 -Outlaws direct and indirect discrimination in education, training and employment. -The Employment Rights Act, 1996 ...the right not to be unfairly dismissed. ...the right to maternity leave. ...the right to paid time off for anti-natal care.. ...the right to unpaid time off to care for or to arrange care for dependents, where the dependent is ill, injured, assaulted, gives birth or dies. -None for sexual harassment

Setting Up Welfare State

-Attlee government introduced bills. -Offered cover on all major risks from birth to death. -But contributions were to be varied according to age and sex, whether employed, unemployed or self-employed. -But rates to be the same within these categories, regardless of income. -Rates had to be kept low, brought in far less money than envisaged.

Problems With Immigration

-Becoming unpopular among the population -'There are three main causes of resentment against coloured inhabitants of the district. =They are alleged to do no work and to collect a rich sum from the Assistance Board. -They are said to find housing when white residents cannot. -And they are charged with all kinds of misbehaviour, especially sexual'. -The economic argument. -Migrants are often seen as lowering wages. -Where do migrants go - well largely to London and the South of England (75% of immigrants). -This CAN have the effect of preventing migration to those regions from the north of England, Scotland and Ireland. -Social costs - In the USA high levels of immigration reduced trust between host community and migrants. -New migrant groups tend to live in tight-knit communities and do not integrate with the host community or other migrant groups. -So - model of ACCULTURATION - which entails contact between two cultural groups. -Acculturation should result in change at both group and individual level - cultural and psychological change - attitudes and behaviour.

Income Inequality

-Between 1994/95 and 2002/3 income distribution was stable. -Disposable income grew by over one fifth for those on high incomes as well as those on low incomes. Between 1979 and 1983 inequality gradually decreased. -But - between 1981 and 1989 disposable income grew by 38% for those on high incomes but grew by only 7% for those at the bottom [Source ONS, www.statistics.gov.uk ]

NHS In Crisis

-Beveridge did not foresee that expenditure was not just related to patient need (which they thought would be covered by increasing numbers of healthy people in society). -Expenditure is related to demographic factors - one of which is the ageing population (demographic time-bomb). -Beveridge also did not foresee mass immigration - immigrants from poor countries have worse health than the host community (eg. rising statistics on tuberculosis in late 20th/early 21st century) -NHS expenditure also relates to: -Changes in medical technology - IVF, laser and robot surgery, rise in caesarian sections, increased drug use, etc. -Changing nature of disease in modern society - eg. diseases of ageing (cancer, CHD), diseases associated with lifestyle (smoking, drinking, eating, sedentary working practices, etc.), mental illness. -Male and female mortality rates converging as female lifestyles emulate male - 'as women behave more like men, they die more like men..' [Stephen Berry, Libertarian Alliance, 2004]. -Accelerating Management costs. -Beveridge too idealistic -But expert medical diagnoses create even more disease entities and ways of treating them. -And there is potentially an infinite demand for health care services. -So could we say that the greater our medical knowledge, the more disease we discover, so the sicker we get?

Developing Black Masculinity

-Black masculinity - subordinate form - from 1990s, link to black music sub-cultures. -Black masculinity appears to be an extreme form of hegemonic masculinity - emphasis on sexual virility and aggression, domination of women, physical violence (in sport or society). -Now referred to as 'hypermasculinity'.

Ethnicity and the Legal System

-Black men 26x more likely to be stopped and searched than white men -Black and Asian defendants receive longer prison sentences than white defendants for the same crime -In 2010 23% of white defendants went to prison compared to 27% black defendants and 29% of Asians

Who Immigrated to Britain?

-Both from West Indies and Indian sub-continent the immigrants wanted to escape poverty and unemployment. -Many were skilled workers who took unskilled jobs -Predominantly young. -Nearly half of West Indian workers were women. -But Indian migrants were single/married men.

Charles Murray - Searching for the Underclass

-Charles Murray the conservative .American sociologist helped created the term the 'underclass' -Who are they? Murray calls them 'the other kind of people' (Murray, 1990). -They are 'a culturally distinct, morally reprehensible, structurally separate group seduced by generous social welfare into criminal, indolent, welfare dependent, anti-social lifestyles'. -Murray (1994) suggested Middlesborough was a prime location for his 'new rabble' underclass because it had all the social preconditions - high rates of existing crime, unemployment and high rates of illegitimate births. -All of these factors were 'early warning signals' for an emergent underclass. -The underclass were distinguished by a particular type of lifestyle, and particular 'type of poverty'. -They could be categorized by being long-term unemployed and unwilling to engage in work-seeking options

Raewyn Connell

-Connell has reformulated her concept of hegemonic masculinity. -She accepts the challenges to hegemony from subordinate masculinities and from women -Women take on male style power in order to compete with men in the marketplace and in global political arena. -Relationship between hegemonic masculinity, subordinate masculinities and women is more complex than first thought. -Connell still suggests there will be multiple masculinities and that there will still be hierarchical relationships between them. -The rigid sets of characteristics of masculinities need to be relaxed, removed.

Bob Connell

-Connell rejects traditional views of gender as listed below: -Biological sex differences between male and female bodies are the cause of gender differences -Culture determines gender -Gender is a combination of the above

Masculinity and Body

-Connell suggests bodily performances are part of being masculine (or feminine). -They enable gendered actions and prohibit non-gendered actions. -Connell cites one interviewee who was a 'legend' or an 'animal' at his university, he used his body for excessive drinking, drug-taking and high sexual activity. Age -Bodily performances of masculinity can decline with age. -An older man may not be able to sustain these activities through which he originally defined his own masculinity. -Can result in crisis of gender identity - virile masculinity doesn't equal human ageing

Discourse of Hegemony

-Connell suggests men use their power to control institutions and discourses. -Eg. use of words against subordinate forms of masculinity - wimp, sissy, nerd, cream puff, jellyfish, four eyes, mother's boy, turkey, milksop

The Sexual Revolution

-Contraceptive Pill (1960), prior to, women thrown out of homes for pregnancy, forced to give up babies, mental hospitals. Led to sex for pleasure, high levels of promiscuity -Abortion Law (1967), abortion on demand -Divorce Law (1967) No fault divorce law sees divorce rate rise from the 1970s, women the instigators of divorce -The Joy of Sex (1972) a key moment sells 8 million copies

Early Problems With the NHS

-Cost of NHS come from general taxation, 10% from national insurance. -Massive demand in 1950s saw the introduction already of prescription charges, charges for dental and ophthalmic services. -Bevan and Harold Wilson resign from the Cabinet in protest. -21st century sees new policy to create two-tier system - free treatment plus private top-up payments for drugs,etc.

Weak Model of Multiculturalism

-Cultural differences should be recognized in the private sphere but should not impose themselves on the public domain of law, government, the market, education and employment [Rex, 1991]. -Some institutions cover both private and public domain - eg. education is a public institution which imparts private moral values/knowledge to students. -Institutions in the public domain are not 'neutral' in relation to ethnicity - the labour market has strong patterns of ethnic and gender segmentation -Boutique multiculturalism' has turned minority ethnic groups into an 'exotic other', offers a merely tokenistic celebration

Welfarism in Britain

-Difficulties of welfare state not just financial. -Cost of welfare increased steadily until the late 1970s. -Since then total costs more stable. -But distribution of spending on different services changes. -Expenditure on education fell between 1975 and 1995 from 6.7% to 5.2% of GDP. -Spending on health services rose - 3.8% of GDP in 1975 to 5.7% in 1995.

3 Categories of Racism

-Divided into: -Prejudice - is learned beliefs and values which lead a group or groups to be biased against another group. -Discrimination - is the negative, unfair or hostile treatment towards ethnic groups -Stereotypes - a narrow or limited, often untrue, set of characteristics about a social group. These tend to become rigid and unchanging over time. -Recently racism is based on cultural differences rather than racial -Often linked to exploitation of cheap migrant labour in capitalist countries (Solomos, Findlay, Jones and Gilroy, The Empire Strikes Back, 1982). -Class Factors

Women and Education Success

-Divorce Law, creates more single mothers, leads to independent women -Changing attitudes, girls now have positive attitudes towards education and work and negative attitudes towards housework -Feminisation of education, OFSTED says female teachers benefit female students success at the expense of male students -Mass media, increased female role models who are powerful independent and working in business and politics careers -Women who are gaining top jobs are: -Younger -Highly educated - (First class honours, Masters, even PhDs) -Less likely to have children than other women in their profession. -May adopt 'masculine' style working manners and practices (aggression, ruthlessness, single-mindedness).

Gentry Masculinity

-Dominant masculinity at time of the British Empire - militaristic, violent. -This was challenged by effeminate masculinity - men met in 'Molly Houses' (city taverns - forerunners of the gay bar). -'Mollies' cross-dressed, danced and engaged in homosexual practices.

Bourdieu and Cultural Capital

-Economic capital: command over economic resources (cash, assets). -Social capital: resources based on group membership, relationships, networks of influence and support. Bourdieu described social capital as "the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition." -Cultural capital: forms of knowledge, skills, education, and advantages that a person has, which give them a higher status in society. Parents provide their children with cultural capital by transmitting the attitudes and knowledge needed to succeed in the current educational system. -Later he adds symbolic capital (resources available to an individual on the basis of honor, prestige or recognition). (The Forms of Capital, 1986)

Pressures of Masculinity

-Eisler & Skidmore (1987) 'masculine stress' can be measured on four levels. -The need to show strength and fitness. -Being perceived as emotional (feminine). -The need to show sexual and workplace prowess. -Being unable to express their emotions.

The New Man

-From the 1980s - New Man is domesticated, house-husband, stays at home with family. -New Man gets in touch with his feminine side, feels he can cry or show emotion in public, doesn't like aggression, doesn't play violent sports or spend all his time in the pub.

David Gilmore

-Functionalist perspective - masculinity linked to culture - masculine roles functional for society. -3 features of masculinity - Man the impregnator, man the provider and man the protector. These roles present in all societies but they are flexible enough to change (structural differentiation).

Developing Masculinity

-Gentry masculinity has evolved over time, Britain's empire waned, industrial society grew up, women got the vote in 1928 and won the right in that year not to suffer the beating of their husbands. -But masculinity was still associated with physical strength, power and force (early 20th century was a period of warfare, warrior masculinity. -Homosexuality was illegal in 19th/early 20th century (Oscar Wilde imprisoned in Reading Gaol). -Homosexuals marginalized in society, rise of the virile, working man, 1950/1960s 'kitchen sink' movies extol the virtues of the working class hero who treats women badly. -Homosexuality begins to assert itself as an alternative form of masculinity. -Coincides with the legalization of homosexuality in the 1960s. -Rise of gay power, pink pound, consumer culture. -Homosexuality subordinate form of masculinity (Connell).

What did New Labour do for the Homeless?

-Homelessness 'Tsar' - Louise Casey in 2001 - created a report 'Rough Sleeping (1998) -Aim to reduce homelessness by two-thirds -Local authorities created hostels, providing lodgings and a meal for rough-sleepers to get off the streets at night. -This model had been employed by the Salvation Army in Britain since the 19th century. -But since there is no long-term housing available for them and since many of them have become used to living outside, they are still actually 'homeless', -Many of the young homeless are children who have run away from home or from care.

Social Class and Social Stratification

-How does social class relate to social stratification? -Social stratification is a particular type of social division where individuals are distributed among the levels of a social hierarchy because of similarities in their economic relations. -Social classes are simply the names we give to the social groups who exist along this hierarchy. -Social class is a social identifier. -It gives rise to social boundaries which can be tight or loosely knit. -It creates well defined class cultures and sub-cultures.

Thatcher Years

-In 1979 Margaret Thatcher took over as PM from James Callaghan's Labour administration. -Thatcher inherited high inflation, numerous and damaging worker strikes leading to 3 day working weeks being imposed. -Thatcher's policies have been described as 'anti-welfare, anti-union, anti-egalitarian -The core ideas were the reduction of the role of the state in the management of the economy and the welfare system -Full employment a possibility in society

Social Exclusion and New Labour

-In 1998 - Sure Start links Department of Education and Department of Health in a programme to improve health and wellbeing of pre-school children in deprived areas. -In 2000 creation of a social investment taskforce to encourage private investment in deprived communities - see also the community schools initiative - John Madjeski Academy which is a public/private foundation aimed at regeneration of a deprived area. -Connexions - new youth service giving advice to teenagers about education, training and employment.

Absolute Poverty

-In 19th century Joseph Rowntree carried out surveys in York (1899, 1936, 1950) to assess the rates of absolute poverty there, and to see if it rose or fell. -He created a 'poverty line' which was a subsistence measure of sufficient money to survive on a daily basis - eg. enough fuel, light, rent, food, clothing, household and personal items. -In 1899 - he found 33% were below his imaginary 'poverty line'. -Further studies in 1936 (18% in poverty) and 1950 (1.5%). -Later subsistence brings in more 'necessary' items (social needs) - eg. newspapers, books, radio, beer, tobacco, holidays and family gifts.

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace

-In Britain there is no statutory definition of sexual harassment. -No attempt has been made to introduce a domestic law specifically dealing with sexual harassment in the workplace. -1998 - EU commission recognized sexual harassment as a problem throughout the EU

Hypermasculinity

-In Search of Notorious PhDsBy Lindsay Johns -Look around. It only takes a nano second of exposure to modern mass media to discern a dazzlingly disturbing trend. -From the glistening pecs and ridiculously chiselled abs of LL Cool J on a billboard to the cringingly pimpilicious demeanour of Snoop Dogg on MTV Base, or the tediously priapic and rabidly homophobic lyrics of Beenieman on London's Choice FM, we are constantly bombarded by stylised images of hypermasculine black men.

British Welfare Compared

-Is the British system the best? -Over the years NO. -Statistics show a strong positive correlation between high welfare spending and higher economic growth rates - eg. West Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway. -The association works for low spenders - Britain, the USA, Canada

Social Class in Britain Today

-It is said Britain is obsessed with social class. -But if that were true in the past, is it still true today? -AND - what is social class? -Crudely - Working, middle and upper class. -The labels 'working', 'middle' and 'upper' first appeared in the 19th century as a way of classifying the sharp social differences that arose in Britain at the start of the Industrial Revolution. -It was a system designed to describe the relationship between industrial workers, managers and owners. -Social class has not vanished - it pervades private and public life. -Social class is used by governments for classification purposes. -Private companies use social class to identify the needs of their customers. -Social class affects language and culture. -Social class can be OBJECTIVE - a way of measuring social groups, and it can be SUBJECTIVE - how social groups think about themselves.

Medieval Masculinity

-Links to Christianity and chivalry. -Ethical masculinity, generous, courageous. -Beuwulf, King Arthur, Crusader knights. -Men as warriors and kings - noble and brave. -Men's role in courtly love - romantic and honourable (idealised notions).

Theories of Social Class

-Marx's model of class is 'relational' - relationships of dominance and subordination created by one's unequal relationship to the means of production. -Max Weber's model suggests classes are in unequal relationships to economic resources, status, power and life chances. -Piere Bourdieu - Cultural Capital -Bourdieu suggested class could be measured along three dimensions of 'capital'. -Economic capital, Social Capital, Cultural Capital.

Hegemonic Masculinity

-Masculinity takes many forms in society. -As society changes so does our conception of masculinity. -Every culture will have a HEGEMONIC form of masculinity (dominant). -Other forms will be subordinate to that. -Hegemonic masculinity not a type but a way of describing the most dominant form. -Hegemonic masculinity embodies a currently accepted strategy (Connell, 1995). -The dominance of this group may be challenged over time by subordinate groups and women. -Masculinity can only be defined in relation to women (femininity). -Today's dominant form of masculinity is white, heterosexual, middle class masculinity. -It is characterized by dominance by force or through discourse over subordinate forms and over women. -Hegemonic masculinities are usually characterized by use of violence and high sexuality.

Metrosexualism

-Metrosexualism (21st century) - heterosexualism with a softer edge, link to consumerism and body culture. -Metrosexual is urban, educated, cosmopolitan, travels a lot, wears designer clothes, he is cosmetically aware and will have cosmetic surgery. -He earns lots of money and spends it.

Wealth Inequalities

-More marked than income -In 1976 - 50% of population owned 8% of the wealth. -In 2001 - 50% of the population owned 5% of the wealth. -But wealth was redistributed during the 20th century - Richest 1% held -70% of wealth in 1911 compared to 23%. -In 2009 richest 10% x100 more wealthy than poorest 10%. -Household wealth of top 10% = +£853,000. -Household wealth of bottom 10% = £8,800 (figure includes cars/other possessions). -Top 10% over a lifetime earn at least £2.2 million. -Being born into a lower social class had marked affect on life chances including educational attainment and life expectancy after 50. -Report commission by Harriet Harman.

Defining Multiculturalism

-Multiculturalism can mean both an ethnically diverse society and an approach to policy for the management of that society. -In Britain immigration created particular problems - how to create a common sense of belonging with the need to respect cultural difference and plural identities. -Multiculturalism refers to the promotion of tolerance, respect and recognition for different ethnic groups within a limited state-bounded territory. -each group is distinctive and has a right to retain cultural distinctiveness. -To blame for London Bombings?

Problems With Multiculturalism

-Multiculturalism focuses on problems of individuals and fails to tackle 'institutional racism' that affects whole groups. -Many companies have good equal opportunities initiatives, but few have good race equality policies - see BBC Five Live, 2004, phone survey of job discrimination. -23% of applicants with 'white' names got interviews (John Andrews), as against 13% for black African names (Abu Olasemi) and 9% for Asian Muslim applicants (Nasser Hanif). -Little research into minority ethnic groups' experiences of the workplace -Multiculturalism assumes that all individuals are equally committed to their ethnic culture - fails to recognise that some people have weaker positions due to gender, class, sexual orientation, life cycle, etc. -Respect for cultural diversity might allow individuals to fail in the public domain - see case of Labov (1973), and linguistic deprivation of minority ethnic groups in education. Respect for diversity leads many individuals and ethnic groups to 'slip through the net', to become 'excluded' and to become disaffected. -EDL protests

Social Exclusion and Policy from 1979

-New Labour inherited high rates of child poverty from living in unemployed households, homelessness and high and rising teenage pregnancy rates. -Child poverty had trebled between 1979 and 1995, registered drug addicts quadrupled from 1986 to 1996 and at least 2000 rough-sleepers in London each night. -Creation of a Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) to tackle the problems of social marginalisation or disenfranchisement from society. -Social Exclusion was stated as a process, it was cumulative and progressive and it increased and decreased over time.

The New Lad

-New Lad or 'Chav' - cultural type from urban music (Eminem apparently liked chav style and chav values) -Jordan and Christina Aguilera liked chav style, chav clothes (Burberry, Kappa, Versace, lots of 'bling'). -Chav culture is a new kind of working classism, but influenced by consumer not production culture

Mentally Ill and Social Exclusion

-Only 24% are in employment compared to 75% of the general population, and 65% of people with physical disabilities. -Life expectancy of schizophrenics is 10 years less than the average population. -70% of prisoners have 2 or more mental health disorders (some caused by life in prison). -Less than 40% of employers would recruit people with mental health problems (DWP 2001). -BUT they would employ 88% of lone parents, 78% of long-term unemployed, 62% of people with physical health problems. -Anti-discriminatory legislation (Disability Act) doesn't work -Department of Health advertisements also do not work -The mentally ill suffer stigmatization, ridicule, verbal and physical assaults and even murder when living alone in the community.

Crisis of Immigration?

-Over-population? -England = 3rd most densely populated country in the world at 51.5 million (after Bangladesh and South Korea) -Only Holland and Belgium in Europe come close to this. -Britain is 10th with 61.4 million. -And a projection of 70 million by 2033 - 7 million of this increase will be migrants and children of migrants

Gay Masculinity

-Peter Tatchell - Gay men less fully masculinised than heterosexual men. -Straight-identified gay men may be more aggressive. -Straight men adopt violent behaviour (hyper-masculinity) to avoid being labelled 'soft' or gay. -Artistic not violent role models.

Relative Poverty

-Peter Townsend (1979) - his model suggested that poverty could be defined as more than lack of material resources. -In Britain, the government uses a version of the old material resources model - eg. based on state family benefits (Income support, family credit) plus housing costs to calculate those in poverty. -Townsend was particularly critical of the Thatcher government's ease of 'manipulation' of these figures for political purposes. -He created the 'relative deprivation' model. -It includes the 'relative income' model - which picks up on families whose income falls below those in similar occupations with similar family size, etc. -Plus poverty must also be related to the resources available to families and households and their styles of living which determine how the resources are used. -All of these factors are culturally and historically determined and are subject to change

Relative Deprivation and Social Exclusion

-Poverty reduces people's ability to also participate in social and community life and social activities. -Holidays are good examples. A person would be considered to be socially deprived if they could not afford even the cheapest form of annual holiday. -So Townsend's model suggests that deprivation is a complex multifactorial problem which can impact back onto an individual's psychological health and sense of personal and cultural identity.

Culture of Poverty Thesis

-Powerful from the 1980s - (Oscar Lewis 1959) -States the lifestyles of the poor differ from other members of society. -BUT the lifestyles of the poor are similar from culture to culture. -Similar experiences creates a shared learning experience which is passed on through generations, becomes resistant to change. -We today refer to a 'sub-culture' of poverty. -Characteristics are: Helplessness, consciousness of marginality, dependence, inferiority, resignation(There is no point in trying to get a job, they won't pick me), no ability to defer gratification, present-term orientation (I want it now), and fatalism (I will be okay when I win the lottery, high rates of lottery addiction). -Free relationships, men who abandon women and children, divorce, mother-headed families -Little communal participation and integration - weak voting patterns, weak use of banks, hospitals, welfare agencies, museums, art galleries, etc.

Ethnicity and Change

-Prejudice against ethnic minorities is declining in Britain -This decline is primarily a generational process: slow overall change masks dramatic shifts between generations -While overall opposition to immigration remains high, discrimination between immigrant groups is declining -Once again, this is a generational process, with younger Britons much less likely to discriminate against non-white migrants

Multicultural Policies in Britain

-Race Relations Act, 1976 (plus 2002 Amendment)- end racial discrimination and promote equality of opportunity in field of employment, education, training, housing and the provision of goods -The law protects again discrimination on grounds of race, colour, nationality or ethnic or national origin -2002 Amendment requires public bodies including the police to implement anti-racist and equal opportunity policies in recruitment and contact with the public -Racial and Religious Hatred Act, 2007 makes it an offence to stir up hatred on racial and religious grounds. This refers to the display, publication, broadcast or distribution of words or behaviour that is likely to stir up religious or racial hatred.

Is the government tackling Social Exclusion

-Report by Joseph Rowntree Foundation says government strategies are failing. -Report says there was an increase of 200,000 children living in poverty in 2005/6 (3.8 million children) compared to 2004/5. -Overall child poverty fell by 600,000 from 1999 but still well below New -Labour targets. -How are these statistics arrived at? -Family credits take about 1 million children 'out' of statistics on poverty each year. -But the number of families whose incomes are low enough to require family credits is also rising. -So as quickly as the government 'manipulates' the statistics downwards, more families come under the radar as needing help. Half of all child poverty in Britain is in families who are working.

Murray's Underclass

-Rising crime rates, property crime, broken communities, lack of trust, weak social stability -Multiple illegitimate pregnancies, broken families, single mothers, lack of child discipline -Family instability, high divorce rates, single mothers, drug and alcohol dependancy, child neglect (abuse), people living in slum conditions -Unemployment, no commitment to work, lack of socialisation to norms and self control, consideration for others and the concept that actions have consequences

Income Inequality Explained

-Rising wage inequalities in Britain from the mid-1990s. -Main cause - skill-based technological change. -Technological advances such as computers benefit skilled, educated workers - increases income potential -Also affects wages/employment prospects of the less skilled/poorly educated workers.

Problems with Social Exclusion

-Scholars and politicians are not in agreement as to whether poverty creates social exclusion (Townsend's argument) or whether social exclusion leads on to poverty. -Government discourse moves between using the words 'poverty' and then 'social exclusion'. -Much current policy is rooted in a model of social exclusion which focuses on integration through employment - ie. The excluded are those who are unemployed. -But people who work long hours in full-time employment may also be 'socially excluded' from participation in many social and communal activities. -BUT - the government also uses a moral underclass discourse (Murray) - emphasis on moral and cultural causes of poverty, moral hazard of 'dependency' and the lifestyles of workless households. The focus here is on the consequences of social exclusion on social order - especially crime.

The NHS

-Set up in 1948 -Medical profession involved in running the new system -Beveridge Report stated that with the setting up of the NHS, government expenditure would eventually decline as backlog of ill-health in society was treated. -The new NHS was to be self-funded by the people who made regular payments to the state throughout their working lives. -The aim of the NHS was then to provide free health care for all. -Beveridge believed that the healthy would pay for the GP and hospital treatment of the sick. -Sounded fabulous -In 1949 - first year of operation - NHS expenditure was £437 million. -By 1996 it had risen to £46 billion. -NHS share of total expenditure rose from 11.8% in 1950 to 14.5% in 1996.

Janet Chafetz (1974)

-Seven areas of masculinity: -Physical - virile, strong, brave, -Functional - breadwinner, provider -Sexual - sexually aggressive -Emotional - unemotional, stoic. -Intellectual - logical, rational, objective -Interpersonal - leader, dominating -Personal - success, ambitious, egotistical

Who is Socially Excluded?

-Social Exclusion was linked to social class, educational attainment, living standards, family relationships, and how these facts of a person's life could act as barriers to them attaining things that were considered desirable in that culture. -Those things could include access to work and a regular income, access to higher education, a place of shelter, clothing, food and health care, but also access to leisure facilities, holidays, a TV. -And ultimately, the ability to be part of the whole culture of that society. -At risk groups were seen as the disabled, minority ethnic groups, the elderly, and young people. -The unemployed, the young, poorly educated, marginalised ethnic groups, the homeless, drug-takers, the disabled, the mentally ill, single parent families. -But also those who do not register to vote, people in rural areas with no buses, the elderly who live alone. -We might also add younger people who live alone in high rise flats in urban areas, people who live in multi-ethnic areas who have not integrated with their neighbours. -I hope you can see that this definition of social exclusion is a very wide one and can include numerous groups of people. -This is because the notion of 'social integration' is also very wide and poorly conceptualised - eg. how would you measure your own degree of 'social integration'?

Moral to Secular Britain

-Some scholars call it a shift from'moralist' Britain to 'causalist' Britain (Davies 2004). -Legal changes leading to widespread social and political changes.

Feminisation of Labour

-Some traditional 'masculine' professions and occupations are becoming 'feminized'. -Medicine - in 19th British Medical Association was formed, instigated strict 'social closure' mechanisms - prevented entry to medical schools of women and working class (see case of Elizabeth Garrett). -Now high rate of female entry, by 2017 women will outnumber men in medicine. -But women doctors work part-time more than men (9.8% of male consultants, 30% of female consultants)

Welfarism and Social Security

-Spending here rose most. -In 1973-4 it was 8.2% of GDP, 11.4% by 1995-6. -Expenditure went up by 100% over this period. -Reasons were STRUCTURAL - High unemployment, growth of poverty, demographic changes (rising numbers of single parent families, elderly people). -Peter Townsend said up to 9% in poverty in 1960s, 28% just on poverty line. -Numbers on benefits rose between 1950 to 1980 from 1.5 million to 3.3 million. -Department of Health and Social Security (DHSS) set up in 1968.

Inequality

-Technological change -Rising unemployment/growth of numbers on benefits/lone parent families -Rise in importance of the City of London under Thatcher -Income inequality grows during Thatcher's period in office

Welfare Acts

-The 1944 Butler Education Act which reformed schooling, the commitment to full employment, education free, leaving age 15. -The 1945 Family Allowance Act. -The 1946 National Insurance Act. -The 1948 National Health Act aimed at providing free health care for all at the point of use.

Welfarism in Changing Britain

-The Beveridge Report belonged to a different era than the Britain which emerged from the Second World War. -Critics of Welfarism now say this 'top down' form of welfare protection creates a dependency culture. -In the 1950s the system was based on maintaining low unemployment, today many towns in Britain have zero unemployment (more jobs unfilled) but will be paying benefits to long-term unemployed (jobs now filled by migrant workers) -Many long-term unemployed are older workers who are semi- or unskilled, disabled. -System challenged as early as the 1950s. -Britain's economic position in the world worsened from the late 1960s. -Conservative governments worried more about controlling inflation than ending unemployment. -By 1976 even Labour government of James Callaghan had abandoned policy of full employment. -As global economic conditions worsened from 1974, governments in Britain abandoned idea of universal welfare, moved to targeting need

Social Exclusion and Gender

-The Joseph Rowntree Foundation Report states that rates of poverty between men and women have fallen since the mid-1990s. -Women's poverty - 5 million women (20%). -Men's poverty - 4 million men (18%). -Only 2% gap today, 4% gap mid-1990s. -Why - fall can be seen in two kinds of single households for women - single pensioners down from nearly 40% to 20% and lone parents - down from 60% to 50%. -Rowntree report states that stereotype of single teenage parent is misleading, most are aged 25 and over, and many are 40 and over (divorce, separation, death).

Social Exclusion Unit

-The Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) stated there were 5 key areas of concern: -Neighbourhood, especially urban, renewal. -Homelessness (rough sleepers). -Teenage Pregnancy -Young people not in education, training or employment. -Truancy and school exclusions. -New Labour stated that central and local government had failed deprived groups in these areas. -How? Poor investment in deprived areas, weak policies on reintegrating the unemployed into the workforce, ineffective policies on homelessness, poor local infrastructures (few basic services such as GP surgeries, pharmacies, bus services, etc.)

Inequality in the Workplace

-The Wage Gap, men and women are not paid the same even for doing the same job -Horizontal Segregation, Women continue to do different jobs than men, traditional service jobs, caring jobs, also shown in subject choices

State Policies Create Social Exclusion

-The case of the mentally ill. -Criticisms of mental asylums from the 1960s caused the British government to consider closing them down. -From the 1980s - create specialist mental health units in general hospitals and Care in the Community Act to 'release' many inmates into a life outside an institution -But this has create a huge pool of mentally ill people who find it difficult to work, often are homeless and are truly socially excluded. -Social exclusion stresses the importance of social rights. -The mentally ill have few rights - a patient can be institutionalised against their wishes under the Mental Health Act if a doctor and a family member sign the forms. -In hospital care, they have little privacy and few privileges, anorexics today can still be force fed, chronic depression can still be treated with ECT (electro-convulsive therapy), frontal lobe lobotomies.

Critique of the concept of Social Exclusion

-The concept is far to broad, poorly defined and therefore difficult to measure and test. -It is stated as a 'multi-dimensional' problem which makes it not only difficult to study but very difficult to eradicate or ameliorate by state policies. -Problems of relativism - as with all relative concepts, it is notoriously difficult to decide whether one individual or group's degree of exclusion is more harmful than another. The state cannot help all groups. -Focussing on the wider conception of social exclusion can lead the state and social agencies away from material deprivation and its consequences on the health and wellbeing of social groups. -Social exclusion effectively 'hides' the real social problems of individuals and groups which might be caused by economic and political policies in Britain and the EU. -Social Exclusion could be used by governments to reduce benefits - reduction would force the excluded into the workplace and create higher levels of participation. -If the 'underclass model' is used the socially excluded and their sub-cultures are 'blamed' for their lack of integration. -Social exclusion can be used as an excuse for higher levels of social control and policies which aim to pressure people into integrating into mainstream culture. -Social exclusion as a concept cannot deal adequately and sociologically with deviant groups who chose not to integrate into mainstream society. -Scholars like Bauman (1998) believe the new poor and unemployed are irrelevant as consumers or producers to the needs of a post-Fordist society.

Beveridge Dream

-The costs of all this would be met by a flat rate contribution, which did not vary according to income, should be affordable by all working people. -Labour Party liked the idea, socialists disliked it because it was not truly redistributive. -Winston Churchill thought it would be too expensive. -But the bills were put into place

Benefits of Immigration

-The immigrant groups coming into Britain today are YOUNGER than the host community. -They are healthier in general and will not be a drain on the health and welfare services for a long time. -They generally take any jobs that are on offer so are more likely to be employed than many similar age people of the host community. -They take the low paid jobs in hospitality, factories, agriculture/horticulture. -Immigration can be linked to the economy. -When the economy grows, need for labour increases.

Vertical Segregation

-This is where men are commonly working in higher grade occupations. -Women cluster in lower grade occupations in the same company or same profession. -Gender thinning out as you move up the company/professional hierarchy - few women at the top. -Equal Opportunities Commission 2004 report suggested that only 1% more women were occupying senior positions in business, the police force, judiciary than in 2003. -20% of women faced dismissal or financial loss resulting from pregnancy. -But a move from 10.4% to 11% representation in the FTSE 100 companies. -Women choose careers for personal fulfilment and men for salary

Strong Model of Multiculturalism

-Tolerance not enough, minority ethnic groups need equal respect in the public domain. -'Primordial multiculturalism' - ethnic groups pass essential culture through generations, relatively unchanging, has to be accepted. -Civic multiculturalism' - cultures are dynamic, changing. Need for dialogue between cultures.

Jonathan Rutherford

-Traditional masculinity under threat. -Working class industries in decline, male unemployment. -Sexual and physical violence of women less acceptable to society. -Changing roles for men in family -Rise of women liberation movement -Rise of radical gay politics

Multiculturalism and Social Division

-Trevor Phillips and Ruth Kelly, M.P. suggest ethnic communities in contemporary Britain live in segregated and isolated communities. -Politicians demand greater social cohesion, integration and inter-cultural contact - promotion of 'active citizenship' (2% of marriages in England are inter-ethnic). -Creation of assimilationist ideas - emphasis on British values, 'Britishness' test. -Many ethnic groups 'blamed' for isolationism

Masculine Roles

-Warrior/fighter throughout history/cultures. -Uniformed professional - police, fireman. -Superhero/supervillain - Batman,etc. -Criminals - dangerous bad men. -Manual workers -Athlete/sports -Princes/political leaders

Beveridge Report

-Welfare State was actually an early attempt at risk management by the state. -But also Beveridge's liberal reforms were aimed at reducing likelihood of social unrest in mass society, containing growth of socialism (same as Bismarck). -Would provide for maternity, widow and orphan's benefits, medical sickness, industrial injury, unemployment, old age and funeral benefits.

Problems with the Welfare System

-Welfare costs soared and critics said New Labour had lost control of spending. -The system had become so complex that staff gave up trying to test the legitimacy of claims. -Tabloid newspapers showed us stories of immigrant families being housed in million pound properties in London earning up to £250,000 in benefits -there is also inequality in the benefits system. -Government figures from 2009 showed that female benefits cheats get just 89p for every £1 defrauded from the state by men. -So the wage gap is everywhere

Structural Explanations of Poverty

-Welfare creates poverty-Most people in poverty are on welfare, but welfare does not keep up with inflation. Welfare has failed to redistribute wealth -Davis and Moore (1967)-Capitalist societies are unequal because they are meritocratic. People with few skills earn less Social inequality and its consequences are natural and inevitable, so poverty is natural and inevitable, and also functional for society. -Poverty Links to Class-Peter Townsend (1979) - British class system denies the poor status. Lifestyles of the wealthy are aspirational Welfare to the poor not seen as normal, humane, but resented by the wealthier in society -Post-Fordism-Changes in the structure of economies globally, rise of part-time working, permanent pool of unemployed.

Victor Seidler

-Western Masculinity -Masculinity linked to Enlightenment and rational thought. -Masculinity linked to science, objectivity, femininity closer to nature and emotions. -Men control nature, hence patriarchy. -Seidler's model based on white, middle class concept of masculinity.

Disadvantages to Ethnic Minorities

-Worse outcomes in employment, education, health, housing -Immigration has been a potent political issue Hostility to minorities could undermine community cohesion and social capital (Putnam, 2007)

Analysing the Policy Discourse on Social Exclusion

.1. Dominance of Neo-liberal, new right ideology since the 1980s - culture of poverty thesis, welfare dependency, different values from mainstream. - underclass analysis. .2. Stress on personal failings, family dysfunction (not a failing of the economic/political system itself). .3. Communities of poor people treated as social problem (not as a product of structured inequalities). .4. Focus on crime/anti-social behaviour, drugs a threat rather than symptomatic of other issues.