CC Psych Ch. 9
formal operational stage
-12 years to adulthood -The final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. -Abstract thinking, can formulate and test hypotheses through deductive logic -Ability to think about many viewpoints at once
preoperational stage
-2 to 7 years -The second stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. -Beginning of symbolic thinking -Reasoning is based on intuition and superficial appearance rather than logic. -Key cognitive features of the preoperational period: -centration: occurs when a preschooler cannot think about more than one detail of a problem-solving task at a time -egocentrism: This is the tendency for preoperational thinkers to view the world through their own experiences -Children at this stage have no understanding of the law of conservation
concrete operational stage
-7 to 11 years -The third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. children begin to think about and understand logical operations, and they are no longer fooled by appearances -They learn reversibility of actions -Contributes to understanding of law of conservation -For the most part, still think concretely. -They do not yet have the ability to reason abstractly, or hypothetically, about what might be possible -With concrete information, children in this stage can think in much more logical and less egocentric ways than children in the preoperational stage
meaning in later life
-According to the psychologist Laura Carstensen's socioemotional selectivity theory, as people grow older they perceive time to be limited, and therefore they adjust their priorities to emphasize emotionally meaningful events, experiences, and goals -For example, some people choose to spend more time with a smaller group of close friends and avoid new people
shaping the self- parents' influence
-Across cultures -The best style of parenting is dynamic and flexible, and it takes into account the parents' personalities, the child's temperament, and the particular situation -Conflict helps adolescents develop important skills
attachment style
-Attachment responses increase when children start moving away from caregivers and typically display separation anxiety (8-12 months) -Using the strange-situation test, Mary Ainsworth identified infant/caregiver pairs: secure attachment: the attachment style for a majority of infants. insecure (anxious) attachment: the attachment style for a minority of infants. -Attachment is a complex developmental phenomenon; both parties contribute to the quality or success of the interactions -Research shows that secure attachments are related to better socioemotional functioning in childhood, better peer relations, and successful adjustment at school -Insecure attachments have been linked to poor outcomes later in life, such as depression and behavioral problems
having children
-Being a parent is central to the self-schemas of many adults -Marital satisfaction decreases while raising children (especially adolescents), but increases again after children are grown -Much of the difficulty seems to stem from a couples' failure to discuss roles and responsibilities before the birth of a child -Partners who report their early married life as chaotic or negative early on are more likely to find that having a baby does not bring them closer together or solve their problems, but increases the existing strain
memory
-Carolyn Rovee-Collier revealed that from a very young age, infants possess some types of memory -in one experiment, with infants ranging from 2 months to 18 months old, older infants remembered the link between kicking and a mobile moving for longer periods
cultural influences on gender development
-Children develop their expectations about gender through observing their parents, peers, and teachers, as well as through media -gender identity: -gender roles: -gender schemas: cognitive structures that reflect the perceived appropriateness of male and female characteristics and behaviors
cognition changes as we age
-Cognitive abilities eventually decline with age, but it is difficult to pinpoint exactly what causes the decline (The frontal lobes shrinking?) -Slowing of mental processing speed -Sensory-perceptual changes occur with age and may account for some of the observed decline -Sensitivity to sound also decreases with age, especially the ability to tune out background noise -Aging also affects memory and intelligence
more moral reasoning and moral emotions
-Criticism of moral-reasoning theories (such as Kohlberg's): Emphasize only the cognitive aspects of morality, to the detriment of emotional issues (such as shame, pride, or embarrassment) -Moral actions, such as helping others in need, may be influenced more by emotions than by cognitive processes -Research on the emotional components of moral behavior has focused largely on empathy and sympathy -Recent research has shown that parents' behaviors influence their children's level of both moral emotions and prosocial behavior
language with the hands
-Deaf babies exposed to signed languages from birth acquire these languages on an identical maturational timetable as hearing babies acquire spoken languages (Petitto). -This research shows that humans must possess a biologically endowed sensitivity to perceive and organize aspects of language patterns
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
-FASD -the most severe being fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) -alcohol interferes with normal brain development and can cause permanent brain damage (negative effects on learning, attention, the inhibition and regulation of behavior, memory, casual reasoning, and motor performance)
memory
-Generally speaking, long-term memory is less affected by aging than is working memory -Older people take more time to learn new information, but once they learn it, they use it as efficiently as younger people. -Consistent with the socioemotional selection theory is the finding that older people show better memory for positive than for negative information -Logan's findings suggest that one reason for the decline in memory observed with aging is that older adults tend not to use strategies that facilitate memory -Another reason for declines in working memory is age-related reductions in dopamine activity in the frontal lobes
hormonal influence during prenatal development
-Hormones that circulate in the womb influence the developing fetus -For example, if the mother's thyroid does not produce sufficient amounts of hormones, the fetus is at risk for lower intellectual development -The mother's emotional state can also affect the developing fetus -High levels of stress hormones may lead to low birth weight and negative cognitive and behavioral outcomes that can persist throughout life
language development
-Humans appear to go from babbling as babies to employing a full vocabulary of about 60,000 words as adults without working very hard at it -Telegraphic speech: missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and convey a wealth of meaning
progression from childhood to adolescence
-Identity formation is an important part of social development, especially in Western cultures, where individuality is valued. -Psychologist Erik Erikson proposed a Psychosocial theory of human development (8 stages) -each stage has a major developmental "crisis," or development challenge to be confronted. -Each crisis provides an opportunity for psychological development; a lack of progress may impair further psychosocial development.
attachment in other species
-Imprinting: a sensitive period during which young animals become strongly attached to a nearby adult -Harry Harlow: Research with Rhesus monkey orphans and their "Mothers" (findings established the importance of contact comfort — physical touch and reassurance — in aiding social development) -Harlow's experiments offered insights into abusive behaviors seen in humans -This research also showed that some key behaviors, such as mothering skills, are learned and not genetically preprogrammed -The lack of nurturing skills has potentially long-term, intergenerational negative consequences
transition to old age
-In Western societies, people are living much longer, and the number of people over age 85 is growing dramatically -The elderly contribute much to modern society (For example, 40 percent of U.S. federal judges are over 65, and they handle about 20 percent of the caseload) -Many older adults work productively well past their 70s
accommodation
-Jean Piaget -the process by which we create a new schema or drastically alter an existing schema to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the schema
assimilation
-Jean Piaget -the process by which we place new information into an existing schema
universal grammar
-Noam Chomsky argued that all languages are based on humans' innate knowledge -Research has shown that we remember a sentence's underlying meaning, not its surface structure (For example, you may not remember the exact words of an insult, but you will certainly recall the deep structure behind that person's meaning) -With exposure to a specific cultural context, the synaptic connections in the brain start to narrow toward one's native language over all others
animal communication
-Nonhuman animals have ways of communicating with each other, but no other animal uses language the way humans do -To test Chomsky's assertion that language is a uniquely human trait, Terrace, Petitto, and Bever attempted to teach American Sign Language to a chimpanzee -ASL-trained chimps use bits and pieces of language almost exclusively to make requests but otherwise are not able to express meanings, thoughts, and ideas by generating language
physiological basis of morality
-People with damage to the prefrontal cortex fail to become emotionally involved in decision making because their somatic markers are not engaged -Research by Damasio and colleagues shows the frontal lobes appear to support the capacity for morality
understanding the laws of nature: mathematics
-Piaget concluded that children understand quantity — the concepts more than and less than — in terms of length rather than in terms of number (marble test) -However, research by Jacques Mehler and Tom Bever indicated that when children are properly motivated, they understand and can demonstrate their knowledge of more than and less than (M & M test) -Despite Piaget's enormous contributions to the understanding of cognitive development, the growing evidence that infants have innate knowledge challenges his theory of distinct stages of cognitive development
challenges to Piaget's theory
-Piaget's framework leaves little room for individual differences in cognitive strategies or skills -Leaves out cultural differences -Theorists believe that different areas in the brain are responsible for different skills and that development does not necessarily follow strict and uniform stages -Many adults continue to reason in concrete operational ways, instead of employing critical and analytical thinking skills (never reaching the Formal Operations stage) -Piaget underestimated the age at which certain skills develop: For example, contemporary researchers have found that object permanence develops in the first few months of life, instead of at 8 or 9 months of age -In his various testing protocols, Piaget may have confused infants' cognitive abilities with infants' physical capabilities
shaping the self- peers' influence
-Starts around one year of age -Peers provide a comparison base (Also a sense of belonging and acceptance) -Homogenous cliques -Unique individuals
physical changes from early to middle adulthood
-The better cognitive, physical, and psychological shape we are in during early adulthood, the fewer significant declines we will see as we age -Brain functioning and body health are "use it or lose it" phenomena
biological influence on gender development
-The biological aspects of gender come from many sources, the most important of which is brain chemistry -In prenatal development: a complex cascade of hormones, changes in brain structure and function, and intrauterine environmental forces -A transgendered person was born with one biological sex but feels that her or his true gender identity is that of the other sex -Ethnic identity is also an important discovery for teenagers attempting to figure out who they are in light of the struggles their group may face within the dominant culture
aging process
-The body and mind start deteriorating slowly at about age 50 -Trivial physical changes include the graying and whitening of hair and the wrinkling of skin -Some of the most serious changes affect the brain, where frontal lobes shrink proportionally more than other brain regions -Except for dementia, older adults have fewer mental health problems, including depression, than younger adults
developmental psychology
-The study of how people change physically, mentally, and socially throughout the lifespan -Influence of biology, environment, social, cultural, and behavioral factors on development
marriage
-The vast majority of people around the world marry or form some type of permanent bond with a relationship partner at some point -People today marry later in life, and the percentage who marry is declining slowly in most industrialized countries -Married people typically experience increased longevity, greater happiness and joy, and are at less risk for mental illnesses such as depression compared with unmarried people -Unhappily married people are at greater risk for poor health and even mortality -Conflicts within marriage are associated with poor immune functioning --> These studies are largely correlational
moral reasoning and moral emotions
-Theorists typically divide morality into moral reasoning, which depends on cognitive processes, and moral emotions -Research has shown that if people lack adequate cognitive abilities, their moral emotions may not translate into moral behaviors -Lawrence Kohlberg devised a theory of moral judgment that involved three main levels of moral reasoning: preconventional level, conventional level, postconventional level -Kohlberg considered advanced moral reasoning to include a consideration of the greater good for all people, with less thought given to personal wishes or fear of punishment
myelination
-_____ begins on the spinal cord during the first trimester of pregnancy and on the neurons during the second trimester -The _____ axons form synapses with other neurons. The abundance of connections allows every brain to adapt well to any environment -The brain organizes itself in response to its environmental experiences, preserving connections it needs in order to function in a given context -synaptic pruning: a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost, e.g. "use it or lose it" -Although most neurons are already formed at birth, the brain's physical development continues through the growth of neurons and the new connections they make
perception
-_____ introduces the world -the development of infants' sensory capacities allows infants to observe and evaluate the objects and events around them
sympathy
-______ arises from feelings of concern, pity, or sorrow for another
empathy
-______ arises from understanding another's emotional state and feeling what the other person is feeling or would be expected to feel in the given situation
Lawrence Kohlberg
-______ devised a theory of moral judgment that involved three main levels of moral reasoning: -preconventional level: self-interest and event outcomes determine what is moral -conventional level: strict adherence to societal rules and the approval of others determine what is moral -postconventional level: decisions about morality depend on abstract principles and the value of all life
theory of mind
-______: the term used to describe the ability to explain and predict another person's behavior as a result of recognizing her or his mental state- Recognition that actions can be intentional (can be understood, predicted, and influenced -Mounting evidence suggests that preschool-age children have the cognitive abilities to understand others' perspectives (despite egocentric behavior) -Development of theory of mind appears to coincide with the maturation of the brain's frontal lobes -Unlike _______, however, the way people understand morality and come to view moral judgments can vary widely based on socialization history and cultural experiences
synaptic pruning
-a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved and those that are not used are lost -"use it or lose it"
attachment
-a strong emotional connection that persists over time and across circumstances -John Bowlby & Mary Ainsworth
emotion regulation
-ability to productively express and cope with emotions without hurting themselves or others -The bonds between parents and children motivate children to want to conform to adult expectations for emotional expression -One of the fundamental needs infants have is to bond emotionally with those who care for them
insecure attachment
-anxious attachment -the attachment style for the minority of infants -been linked to poor outcomes later in life, such as depression and behavioral problems
sensorimotor stage
-birth to 2 years -According to Piaget, one important cognitive concept developed during this stage is object permanence -Object permanence aids the child in developing attachments to a small set of consistent caregivers and contributes to the child's understanding of the world of objects
sensitive learning periods
-certain connections are made most easily during particular times in development, as long as the brain receives the right stimuli -_______: time periods when specific skills develop most easily -language -the emergence of close emotional attachments with caregivers
socioemotional development
-enables people to live successfully in the world with other people
human development
-environment determines which of a person's genes are expressed and how they are expressed -nature and nurture both play a role in development outcome -the case of genie
teratogens
-environmental agents that harm the embryo or fetus -drugs, alcohol, bacteria, viruses, and chemicals -extent of damage depends on when the fetus is exposed to it, length of time exposed and amount of the ____
erikson's stages
-final three stages of psychosocial challenges -Intimacy versus Isolation: Young adults -Generativity versus Stagnation: Middle aged adults -Integrity versus Despair: Older adults
absolute statement
-if I was securely attached to my caregiver in infancy, I will have better romantic relationships as a young adult
relative possibility
-if securely attached as an infant, a person is more likely to have healthy romantic relationships later in life
orienting reflex
-infant research techniques -humans' tendency to pay more attention to new stimuli
preferential-looking technique
-infant research techniques -researchers show an infant two things -if the infant looks longer at one of the two things, the researchers know the infant can distinguish between the two and finds one more interesting
infant research techniques
-involving visual perception -preferential-looking technique -orienting reflex
chemistry of attachment
-oxytocin plays a role in maternal tendencies, feelings of social acceptance and bonding, and sexual gratification -Phenomena that appear to be completely social in nature, such as the caregiver/child attachment, also have biological influences
smoking
-paternal _____ is related to infant hydrocephalus, and paternal alcohol use is related to infant hear defects
inaccurate memory
-source amnesia suggests that many of our earliest memories come from looking at pictures in family albums, watching home movies, or hearing stories from our parents — not from actual memories of the events (we forget where the information came from) -Memory skills improve as cognitive abilities mature -The fact that children have underdeveloped frontal lobes may play a part
Jean Piaget
-stages of cognitive development -Piaget developed the theory that children go through four stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational -Piaget believed that each stage builds on the previous one through two learning processes: assimilation, accommodation
secure attachment
-the attachment style for the majority of infants
infantile amnesia
-the inability to remember events from early childhood -psychologists have offered various explanations for this phenomenon -children begin to retain memories after developing the ability to create autobiographical memory based on personal experience -childhood memory develops with language acquisition because the ability to use words and concepts aids in memory retention -children younger than 3 or 4 do not perceive contexts well enough to store memories accurately
auditory perception
-the infant's abilities to recognize sounds and locate those sounds in space improve continuously as she or he gains experience with objects and people and as the auditory cortex develops -by age 6 months, the baby will have a nearly adult level of auditory function
"some" does not mean "all"
-we tend to change relative probabilities to absolute statements when we convert terms such as some and more into all -relative possibility and absolute statement -by focusing on the properly limited meanings of a study's terms, we can draw correct conclusions from that study's results
dynamic systems theory
0views development as a process where new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and his or her cultural and environmental contexts -development advances in any domain (physiological, cognitive, emotional, or social) occur through both the person's active exploration of an environment and the constant feedback that the environment provides -children often achieve developmental milestones at different paces, depending on the cultures in which they are raised
