Ch 13 14 15

moral personality,

moral personality, and if so, what are its components? Researchers have focused attention on three possible components: (1) moral identity, (2) moral character, and (3) moral exemplars:

perspective taking

perspective taking, the ability to take other people's perspectives and understand their thoughts and feelings in terms of antisocial behavior, recent research indicates that children and adolescents who do not have good perspective-taking skills are more likely to have difficulty in peer relations and engage in more aggressive and oppositional behavior

physical changes in female

physical changes in females? First, either the breasts enlarge or pubic hair appears. Later, hair appears in the armpits. As these changes occur, the female grows in height and her hips become wider than her shoulders. Menarche—a girl's first menstruation—comes rather late in the pubertal cycle. Initially, her menstrual cycles may be highly irregular. For the first several years, she may not ovulate every menstrual cycle; some girls do not ovulate at all until a year or two after menstruation begins. No voice changes comparable to those in pubertal males occur in pubertal females. By the end of puberty, the female's breasts have become more fully rounded.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. taking another's perspective improves children's likelihood of understanding and sympathizing with others who are distressed or in need.

social cognition

social cognition—thoughts about social matters, such as the aggressive boy's interpretation of an encounter as hostile and his classmates' perception of his behavior as inappropriate

industry versus inferiority

(Erikson's) His fourth stage, industry versus inferiority, appears during middle and late childhood. The term industry expresses a dominant theme of this period: Children become interested in how things are made and how they work. When children are encouraged in their efforts to make, build, and work—whether they are building a model airplane, constructing a tree house, fixing a bicycle, solving an addition problem, or cooking—their sense of industry increases. However, parents who see their children's efforts at making things as "mischief" or "making a mess" can cause children to develop a sense of inferiority.

Inflated Praise Study

-English students given really poorly written essays to critique -When told they were from the opposite race, they gave them more praise and didn't properly critique the papers (in order to avoid appearing racist)

Correlation

Although variations in self-esteem have been linked with many aspects of children's development, much of the research is correlational rather than experimental. Recall that correlation does not equal causation. Thus, if a correlational study finds an association between children's low self-esteem and low academic achievement, low academic achievement could cause the low self-esteem as much as low self-esteem causes low academic achievement

Self Regulation

One of the most important aspects of the self in middle and late childhood is the increased capacity for self-regulation. This increased capacity is characterized by deliberate efforts to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement

Kohlberg's Theory

A second major perspective on moral development was proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg (1958, 1986). Piaget's cognitive stages of development serve as the underpinnings for Kohlberg's theory, but Kohlberg suggested that there are six stages of moral development. These stages, he argued, are universal. Development from one stage to another, said Kohlberg, is fostered by opportunities to take the perspective of others and to experience conflict between one's current stage of moral thinking and the reasoning of someone at a higher stage.

teen mom

A study using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth revealed that daughters of teenage mothers were 66 percent more likely to become teenage mothers themselves

cyberbullying

An increasing concern is peer bullying and harassment on the Internet (called cyberbullying) (Vollink, Dehue, & McGuckin, 2016; Wolke, Lee, & Guy, 2017). One study involving third- to sixth-graders revealed that engaging in cyber aggression was related to loneliness, lower self-esteem, fewer mutual friendships, and lower peer popularity (Schoffstall & Cohen, 2011). Another recent study revealed that cyberbullying contributed to depression and suicidal ideation above and beyond the contribution of involvement in traditional types of bullying (physical and verbal bullying in school and in neighborhood contexts, for example) (Bonanno & Hymel, 2013). And a recent meta-analysis concluded that being the victim of cyberbullying was linked to stress and suicidal ideation (Kowalski & others, 2014). Further, a longitudinal study found that adolescents experiencing social and emotional difficulties were more likely to be both cyberbullied and traditionally bullied than traditionally bullied only (Cross, Lester, & Barnes, 2015). In this study, adolescents targeted in both ways stayed away from school more than their counterparts who were traditionally bullied only. And a recent study revealed that adolescents who were bullied both in a direct way and through cyberbullying had more behavioral problems and lower self-esteem than adolescents who were only bullied in one of these two ways

Social-Emotional Education Programs

An increasing number of social-emotional educational programs have been developed to improve many aspects of children's and adolescents' lives. Two such programs are the Second Step program created by the Committee for Children (2017) and the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2017). Many social-emotional education programs only target young children, but Second Step can be implemented in pre-K through eighth grade and CASEL can used with pre-K through twelfth-grade students.

Anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation. It is a serious disorder that can lead to death(Westmoreland, Krantz, & Mehler, 2016). Anorexia nervosa is about 10 times more likely to occur in females than males. Although most U.S. girls have been on a diet at some point, slightly less than 1 percent ever develop anorexia nervosa. Three main characteristics of anorexia nervosa are (1) weighing less than 85 percent of what is considered normal for a person's age and height, (2) having an intense fear of gaining weight—a fear that does not decrease with weight loss, and (3) having a distorted image of body shape (Pinhas & others, 2017; Reville, O'Connor, & Frampton, 2016). Obsessive thinking about weight and compulsive exercise also are linked to anorexia nervosa (Simpson & others, 2013). Even when they are extremely thin, anorexics see themselves as too fat. They never think they are thin enough, especially in the abdomen, buttocks, and thighs. They usually weigh themselves frequently, often take their body measurements, and gaze critically at themselves in mirrors. Anorexia nervosa typically begins in the early to middle teenage years, often following an episode of dieting and some type of life stress. When anorexia nervosa does occur in males, the symptoms and other characteristics (such as a distorted body image and family conflict) are usually similar to those reported by females who have the disorder

Talking

Are there gender differences in communication in relationships? Sociolinguist Deborah Tannen (1990) distinguishes between rapport talk and report talk: Rapport talk is the language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships. Females enjoy rapport talk and conversation that is relationship-oriented more than males do. Report talk is talk that gives information. Public speaking is an example of report talk. Males hold center stage through report talk with verbal performances such as storytelling, joking, and lecturing with information.

stress coping

Older children are also better at reframing, or changing their perception of a stressful situation. For example, younger children may be very disappointed that their teacher did not say hello to them when they arrived at school. Older children may reframe this type of situation and think, "She may have been busy with other things and just forgot to say hello."

nutrition

Being obese in adolescence predicts obesity in emerging adulthood. For example, a study of more than 8,000 12- to 21-year-olds found that obese adolescents were more likely to develop severe obesity in emerging adulthood than were overweight or normal-weight adolescents

direct instruction approach

By contrast, the direct instruction approach is structured and teacher centered. It is characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative emotional expression to a minimum. An important goal in the direct instruction approach is maximizing student learning time

Carol Gilligan

Carol Gilligan (1982, 1992, 1996), who argues that Kohlberg's theory reflects a gender bias. According to Gilligan, Kohlberg's theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others and sees the individual as standing alone and independently making moral decisions. It puts justice at the heart of morality. In contrast to Kohlberg's justice perspective, which focuses on the rights of the individual, Gilligan argues for a care perspective, which is a moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others. According to Gilligan, Kohlberg greatly underplayed the care perspective, perhaps because he was a male, because most of his research was with males rather than females, and because he used male responses as a model for his theory.

moral reasoning

In contrast, moral reasoning focuses on ethical issues and rules of morality. Unlike conventional rules, moral rules are not arbitrary. They are obligatory, widely accepted, and somewhat impersonal (Dahl & Killen, 2017; Mulvey & others, 2016; Turiel, 2015). Rules pertaining to lying, cheating, stealing, and physically harming another person are moral rules because violation of these rules affronts ethical standards that exist apart from social consensus and convention. Moral judgments involve concepts of justice, whereas social conventional judgments are concepts of social organization. Violating moral rules is usually more serious than violating conventional rules.

Truma

Children who have a number of coping techniques have the best chance of adapting and functioning competently in the face of disasters and traumas. Following are some recommendations for helping children cope with the stress of especially devastating events (Gurwitch & others, 2001, pp. 4-11): Reassure children of their safety and security. This step may need to be taken numerous times. Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them. Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings. Tell them that these are normal feelings after a stressful event. Help children make sense of what happened. Children may misunderstand what took place. For example, young children "may blame themselves, believe things happened that did not happen, believe that terrorists are in the school, etc. Gently help children develop a realistic understanding of the event" (p. 10). Protect children from reexposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma. This strategy includes limiting conversations about the event in front of the children.

Conventional reasoning

Conventional reasoning is the second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government. Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity is Kohlberg's third stage of moral development. At this stage, individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgments. Children and adolescents often adopt their parents' moral standards at this stage, seeking to be thought of by their parents as a "good girl" or a "good boy." Stage 4. Social systems morality is the fourth stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty. For example, adolescents may reason that in order for a community to work effectively, it needs to be protected by laws that are adhered to by its members.

Developmental changes and emotions

Developmental changes in emotions during the middle and late childhood years include the following (Denham, Bassett, & Wyatt, 2007, 2015; Denham & others, 2013; Goodvin, Thompson, & Winer, 2015; Kuebli, 1994; Thompson, 2015): Improved emotional understanding. For example, children in elementary school develop an increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame. These emotions become less tied to the reactions of other people; they become more self-generated and integrated with a sense of personal responsibility. Also, during middle and late childhood as part of their understanding of emotions, children can engage in "mental time travel," in which they anticipate and recall the cognitive and emotional aspects of events (Kramer & Lagattuta, 2018; Hjortsvang & Lagattuta, 2017; Lagattuta, 2014a, b). Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation. A third-grader, for example, may realize that achieving something might involve both anxiety and joy. Increased tendency to be aware of the events leading to emotional reactions. A fourth-grader may become aware that her sadness today is influenced by her friend's moving to another town last week. Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions. When one of his classmates irritates him, a fifth-grader has learned to tone down his anger better than he used to. The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. In the elementary school years, children become more reflective about their emotional lives and increasingly use strategies to control their emotions. They become more effective at cognitively managing their emotions, such as soothing themselves after an upset.

five peer statuses

Developmentalists have distinguished five peer statuses (Wentzel & Asher, 1995): Popular children are frequently nominated as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers. Average children receive an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers. Neglected children are infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers. Rejected children are infrequently nominated as someone's best friend and are actively disliked by their peers. Controversial children are frequently nominated both as someone's best friend and as being disliked.

eating disorders

Eating disorders have become increasingly common among adolescents (Schiff, 2017). Here are some research findings involving adolescent eating disorders: Body image. Body dissatisfaction and distorted body image play important roles in adolescent eating disorders (Gadsby, 2017; Senin-Calderon & others, 2017). One study revealed that in general, adolescents were dissatisfied with their bodies, with males desiring to increase their upper body and females wanting to decrease the overall size of their body (Ata, Ludden, & Lally, 2007). In this study, low self-esteem and social support, weight-related teasing, and pressure to lose weight were linked to adolescents' negative body images. In another study, girls who felt negatively about their bodies in early adolescence were more likely to develop eating disorders two years later than their counterparts who did not feel negatively about their bodies (Attie & Brooks-Gunn, 1989). And in yet another study, the key link for explaining depression in overweight adolescents involved body dissatisfaction (Mond & others, 2011). Parenting. Adolescents who reported observing more healthy eating patterns and exercise by their parents had more healthy eating patterns and exercised more themselves (Pakpreo & others, 2005). Negative parent-adolescent relationships were linked with increased dieting by girls over a one-year period (Archibald, Graber, & Brooks-Gunn, 1999). Sexual activity. Girls who were both sexually active with their boyfriends and in pubertal transition were the most likely to be dieting or engaging in disordered eating patterns (Cauffman, 1994). Role models and the media. Girls who were highly motivated to look like female celebrities were more likely than their peers to become very concerned about their weight (Field & others, 2001). Watching commercials with idealized thin female images increased adolescent girls' dissatisfaction with their bodies (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004).

teens

In 1904, G. Stanley Hall proposed the "storm-and-stress" view that adolescence is a turbulent time charged with conflict and mood swings. However, when Daniel Offer and his colleagues (1988) studied the self-images of adolescents in the United States, Australia, Bangladesh, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Japan, Taiwan, Turkey, and West Germany, at least 73 percent of the adolescents displayed a healthy self-image. Although there were differences among them, the adolescents were happy most of the time, they enjoyed life, they perceived themselves as able to exercise self-control, they valued work and school, they expressed confidence about their sexual selves, they expressed positive feelings toward their families, and they felt they had the capability to cope with life's stresses—not exactly a storm-and-stress portrayal of adolescence.

bullying

In a national survey of more than 15,000 students in grades 6 through 10, nearly one of every three students said that they had experienced occasional or frequent involvement as a victim or perpetrator in bullying And longitudinal studies have indicated that victims bullied in childhood and adolescence have higher rates of agoropobia (an abnormal fear of being in public, open, and crowded places), depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and suicidality in their early to mid-twenties compared to those who have not been bullied in childhood and adolescence

sleep

In a recent national survey of youth, only 27 percent of U.S. adolescents got eight or more hours of sleep on an average school night The researchers also found that older adolescents tend to be more sleepy during the day than younger adolescents. They theorized that this sleepiness was not due to academic work or social pressures. Rather, their research suggests that adolescents' biological clocks undergo a shift as they get older, delaying their period of wakefulness by about one hour. A delay in the nightly release of the sleep-inducing hormone melatonin, which is produced in the brain's pineal gland, seems to underlie this shift. Melatonin is secreted at about 9:30 p.m. in younger adolescents and approximately an hour later in older adolescents.

Jeffrey Arnett

Jeffrey Arnett (2006) concluded that five key features characterize emerging adulthood: Exploring identity, especially in love and work. Emerging adulthood is the time during which key changes in identity take place for many individuals. Experiencing instability. Residential changes peak during early adulthood, a time during which there also is often instability in love, work, and education. Being self-focused. According to Arnett (2006, p. 10), emerging adults "are self-focused in the sense that they have little in the way of social obligations, little in the way of duties and commitments to others, which leaves them with a great deal of autonomy in running their own lives." Feeling in-between. Many emerging adults don't consider themselves adolescents or full-fledged adults. Experiencing the age of possibilities, a time when individuals have an opportunity to transform their lives. Arnett (2006) describes two ways in which emerging adulthood is the age of possibilities. First, many emerging adults are optimistic about their future. Second, for emerging adults who have experienced difficult times while growing up, emerging adulthood presents an opportunity to steer their lives in a more positive direction

Security study

Kathryn Kerns and her colleagues (Movahed Abtahi & Kerns, 2017; Brumariu & Kerns, 2013; Brumariu, Kerns, & Seibert, 2012; Kerns & Brumariu, 2016; Kerns & Seibert, 2012, 2016; Kerns, Siener, & Brumariu, 2011; Siener & Kerns, 2012) have studied links between attachment to parents and various child outcomes in middle and late childhood. They have found that during this period of development, secure attachment is associated with a lower level of internalized symptoms, anxiety, and depression in children (Brumariu & Kerns, 2011, 2013). For example, a recent study revealed that children who were less securely attached to their mothers reported having more anxiety

Kohlberg argued

Kohlberg argued that advances in children's cognitive development did not ensure development of moral reasoning. Instead, moral reasoning also reflects children's experiences in dealing with moral questions and moral conflict.

Families and Moral Development

Kohlberg argued that family processes are essentially unimportant in children's moral development. As noted earlier, he argued that parent-child relationships usually provide children with little opportunity for give-and-take or perspective taking. Rather, Kohlberg said that such opportunities are more likely to be provided by children's peer relations.

culture and moral reasoning

Kohlberg emphasized that his stages of moral reasoning are universal, but some critics claim his theory is culturally biased (Christen, Narváez, & Gutzwiller, 2017; Graham & Valdesolo, 2017; Gray & Graham, 2018). Both Kohlberg and his critics may be partially correct. One review of 45 studies in 27 cultures around the world, mostly non-European, provided support for the universality of Kohlberg's first four stages (Snarey, 1987). Individuals in diverse cultures developed through these four stages in sequence as Kohlberg predicted. More recent research revealed support for the qualitative shift from stage 2 to stage 3 across cultures (Gibbs & others, 2007). Stages 5 and 6, however, have not been found in all cultures (Gibbs & others, 2007; Snarey, 1987). Furthermore, critics assert that Kohlberg's scoring system does not recognize the higher-level moral reasoning of certain cultures and thus does not acknowledge that moral reasoning is more culture-specific than Kohlberg envisioned

Kohlberg's critics

Kohlberg's theory has provoked debate, research, and criticism (Graham & others, 2017; Gray & Graham, 2018; Hoover & others, 2018; Killen & Dahl, 2018; Narváez, 2015, 2016, 2017a, b, 2018; Railton, 2017; Turiel & Gingo, 2017). Key criticisms involve the link between moral thought and moral behavior, whether moral reasoning is conscious/deliberative or unconscious/automatic, the role of emotion, the importance of culture and the family in moral development, the significance of concern for others, moral personality, and domain theory.

Male pubertal characteristics

Male pubertal characteristics typically develop in the following order: increase in penis and testicle size, appearance of straight pubic hair, minor voice change, first ejaculation (which usually occurs through masturbation or a wet dream), appearance of curly pubic hair, onset of maximum growth in height and weight, growth of hair in armpits, more detectable voice changes, and, finally, growth of facial hair.

SES and agression

One of the most consistent gender differences is that boys are more physically aggressive than girls are (Hyde, 2014). The difference occurs in all cultures and appears very early in children's development (Dayton & Malone, 2017). The physical aggression difference is especially pronounced when children are provoked. Both biological and environmental factors have been proposed to account for gender differences in aggression. Biological factors include heredity and hormones. Environmental factors include cultural expectations, adult and peer models, and social agents that reward aggression in boys and punish aggression in girls.

Sexual idenity

Mastering emerging sexual feelings and forming a sense of sexual identity are multifaceted and lengthy processes (Diamond & Alley, 2018; Merrill, Stief, & Savin-Williams, 2016; Savin-Williams, 2016, 2017, 2018). They involve learning to manage sexual feelings (such as sexual arousal and attraction), developing new forms of intimacy, and learning the skills to regulate sexual behavior to avoid undesirable consequences. Developing a sexual identity also involves more than just sexual behavior. Sexual identities emerge in the context of physical factors, social factors, and cultural factors, with most societies placing constraints on the sexual behavior of adolescents. It is commonly believed that most gays and lesbians quietly struggle with same-sex attractions in childhood, do not engage in heterosexual dating, and gradually recognize that they are gay or lesbian in mid to late adolescence. Many youth do follow this developmental pathway, but others do not (Diamond & Alley, 2018; Diamond & Savin-Williams, 2015; Savin-Williams, 2016, 2017, 2018). Gay and lesbian youth have diverse patterns of initial attraction, often have bisexual attractions, and may have physical or emotional attraction to same-sex individuals but do not always fall in love with them.

Moral character

Moral character. A person with moral character has the willpower, desires, and integrity to stand up to pressure, overcome distractions and disappointments, and behave morally. A person of good moral character displays moral virtues such as "honesty, truthfulness, and trustworthiness, as well as those of care, compassion, thoughtfulness, and considerateness. Other salient traits revolve around virtues of dependability, loyalty, and conscientiousness"

Moral exemplars.

Moral exemplars. Moral exemplars are people who have lived exemplary moral lives (Walker, 2013a, b, 2014a, b, 2016). Their moral personality, identity, character, and set of virtues reflect moral excellence and commitment.

Moral identity.

Moral identity. Individuals have a moral identity when moral notions and moral commitments are central to their lives (Matsuba, Murazyn, & Hart, 2014; Walker, 2014a, b, 2016). They construct the self with reference to moral categories. Violating their moral commitment would place the integrity of their self at risk

components of friendship

More specifically, children's friendships can serve six functions (Gottman & Parker, 1987): Companionship. Friendship provides children with a familiar partner and playmate, someone who is willing to spend time with them and join in collaborative activities. Stimulation. Friendship provides children with interesting information, excitement, and amusement. Physical support. Friendship provides resources and assistance. Ego support. Friendship provides the expectation of support, encouragement, and feedback, which helps children maintain an impression of themselves as competent, attractive, and worthwhile individuals. Social comparison. Friendship provides information about where the child stands vis-à-vis others and whether the child is doing okay. Affection and intimacy. Friendship provides children with a warm, close, trusting relationship with another individual. Intimacy in friendships is characterized by self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts. Research reveals that intimate friendships may not appear until early adolescence

drug

Positive relationships with parents and others can reduce adolescents' drug use (Chassin & others, 2016; Zucker, Hicks, & Heitzeg, 2016). Researchers have found that parental monitoring is linked with a lower incidence of drug use (Wang & others, 2014). A research review concluded that the more frequently adolescents ate dinner with their family, the less likely they were to have substance abuse problems (Sen, 2010). Negative interactions with parents are linked to increased adolescent drinking and smoking, while positive interactions with parents are related to declines in use of these substances (Gutman & others, 2011). Further, in one study, a higher level of parental monitoring during the last year of high school was linked to a lower risk of dependence on alcohol, but not marijuana, in the first year of college Educational success is also a strong buffer for the emergence of drug problems in adolescence. An analysis by Jerald Bachman and his colleagues (2008) revealed that early educational achievement considerably reduced the likelihood that adolescents would develop drug problems, including those involving alcohol abuse, smoking, and abuse of various illicit drugs.

Postconventional reasoning

Postconventional reasoning is the highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code. Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights is the fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law. A person evaluates the validity of actual laws and realizes that social systems can be examined in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values. Stage 6. Universal ethical principles is the sixth and highest stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standardPage 389 based on universal human rights. When faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person reasons that conscience should be followed, even though the decision might bring risk.

Preconventional reasoning

Preconventional reasoning is the lowest level of moral reasoning, said Kohlberg. At this level, good and bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments. Stage 1. Heteronomous morality is the first stage in preconventional reasoning. At this stage, moral thinking is tied to punishment. For example, children think that they must obey because they fear punishment for disobedience. Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange is the second stage of preconventional reasoning. At this stage, individuals reason that pursuing their own interests is the right thing to do, but they let others do the same. Thus, they think that what is right involves an equal exchange. They reason that if they are nice to others, others will be nice to them in return.

puberty

Puberty is a brain-neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that take place in this period of developmentPage 422

Self-concept

Self-concept refers to domain-specific evaluations of the self. Children can make self-evaluations in many domains of their lives—academic, athletic, appearance, and so on.

Self-esteem

Self-esteem refers to global evaluations of the self; it is also called self-worth or self-image. For example, a child may perceive that she is not merely a person but a good person.

STI

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are diseases that are contracted primarily through sexual contact. This contact is not limited to vaginal intercourse but includes oral-genital and anal-genital contact as well. STIs are an increasing health problem. Among the main STIs adolescents can get are bacterial infections (such as gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia), and STIs caused by viruses—genital herpes, genital warts, and AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome).

Social conventional reasoning

Social conventional reasoning focuses on conventional rules that have been established by social consensus in order to control behavior and maintain the social system. The rules themselves are arbitrary, such as raising your hand in class before speaking, using one staircase at school to go up, the other to go down, not cutting in front of someone standing in line to buy movie tickets, and stopping at a stop sign when driving. There are sanctions if we violate these conventions, although they can be changed by consensus.

glands

The endocrine system's role in puberty involves the interaction of the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the gonads (see Figure 2). The hypothalamus is a structure in the brain that is involved with eating and sex. The pituitary gland is an important endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates other glands; among these, the gonads—the testes in males, the ovaries in females—are particularly important in giving rise to pubertal changes in the body.

testosterone and estrogen

Testosterone is a hormone associated in boys with genital maturation, an increase in height, and a change in voice. Estradiol is a type of estrogen; in girls it is associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development. In one study, testosterone levels increased eighteenfold in boys but only twofold in girls duringPage 423 puberty; estradiol increased eightfold in girls but only twofold in boys (Nottelmann & others, 1987). Thus, both testosterone and estradiol are present in the hormonal makeup of both boys and girls, but testosterone dominates in male pubertal development and estradiol in female pubertal development

constructivist approach

The constructivist approach is learner centered and emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. In the constructivist view, teachers should not attempt to simply pour information into children's minds. Rather, children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher (Kauchak & Eggen, 2017). The constructivist belief is that for too long in American education children have been required to sit still, be passive learners, and rotely memorize irrelevant as well as relevant information. Today, constructivism may include an emphasis on collaboration—children working together in their efforts to know and understand

The domain theory of moral development

The domain theory of moral development states that there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, including moral, social conventional, and personal domains. In domain theory, children's and adolescents' moral, social conventional, and personal knowledge and reasoning emerge from their attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience

death

The three leading causes of death in adolescence and emerging adulthood are accidents, homicide, and suicide Almost half of all deaths at 15 to 24 years of age are due to unintentional injuries, approximately three-fourths of them involving motor vehicle accidents. Risky driving habits, such as speeding, tailgating, and drivingPage 439 under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, may be more important contributors to these accidents than lack of driving experience. In about 50 percent of motor vehicle fatalities involving adolescents, the driver has a blood alcohol level of 0.10 percent—twice the level needed to be designated as "under the influence" in some states. A high rate of intoxication is also found in adolescents who die as pedestrians or while using recreational vehicles. Homicide is another leading cause of death in adolescence and emerging adulthood, especially among African American males, who are three times more likely to be killed by guns than by natural causes. Suicide is the third leading cause of death in adolescence and emerging adulthood. The suicide rate among U.S. adolescents and emerging adults tripled during the second half of the twentieth century, but it has declined in recent years

teens 2

The transition from childhood to adolescence involves a number of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes. Among the biological changes are the growth spurt, hormonal changes, and sexual maturation that come with puberty. In early adolescence, changes take place in the brain that allow for more advanced thinking. Also at this time, adolescents begin to stay up later at night and sleep later in the morning. Among the cognitive changes that occur during the transition from childhood to adolescence are increases in abstract, idealistic, and logical thinking. As they make this transition, adolescents begin to think in more egocentric ways, often sensing that they are onstage, unique, and invulnerable. In response to these changes, parents place more responsibility for decision making on the young adolescents' shoulders. Among the socioemotional changes adolescents undergo are a quest for independence, conflict with parents, and a desire to spend more time with peers. Conversations with friends become more intimate and include more self-disclosure. As children enter adolescence, they attend schools that are larger and more impersonal than their neighborhood grade schools. Achievement becomes a more serious business, and academic challenges increase. At this time, increased sexual maturation produces a much greater interest in romantic relationships. Young adolescents also experience greater mood swings than they did when they were children. In sum, the transition from childhood to adolescence is complex and multidimensional, involving change in many different aspects of an individual's life. Negotiating this transition successfully requires considerable adaptation and thoughtful, sensitive support from caring adults.

stepfamily structure

Three common types of stepfamily structure are (1) stepfather, (2) stepmother, and (3) blended or complex. In stepfather families, the mother typically had custody of the children and remarried, introducing a stepfather into her children's lives. In stepmother families, the father usually had custody and remarried, introducing a stepmother into his children's lives. In a blended or complex stepfamily, both parents bring children from previous marriages to live in the newly formed stepfamily.

Brain changes

Using fMRI brain scans, scientists have recently discovered that adolescents' brains undergo significant structural changes (Casey, Galvan, & Somerville, 2016; Cohen & others, 2016; Goddings & Mills, 2017; Steinberg & others, 2017). The corpus callosum, where fibers connect the brain's left and right hemispheres, thickens in adolescence, and this change improves adolescents' ability to process information (Chavarria & others, 2014). We have discussed advances in the development of the prefrontal cortex—the highest level of the frontal lobes involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control. However, the prefrontal cortex does not finish maturing until the emerging adult years, approximately 18 to 25 years of age, or later (Casey, Galvan, & Somerville, 2016; Juraska & Willing, 2017).Page 426 At a lower, subcortical level, the limbic system, which is the seat of emotions and where rewards are experienced, matures much earlier than the prefrontal cortex and is almost completely developed by early adolescence (Shulman & others, 2016a). The limbic system structure that is especially involved in emotion is the amygdala. Figure 4 shows the locations of the prefrontal cortex, limbic system, amygdala, and corpus callosum.

Influences on the Kohlberg Stages

What factors influence movement through Kohlberg's stages? Although moral reasoning at each stage presupposes a certain level of cognitivedevelopment, Kohlberg argued that advances in children's cognitive development did not ensure development of moral reasoning. Instead, moral reasoning also reflects children's experiences in dealing with moral questions and moral conflict. Several investigators have tried to advance individuals' levels of moral development by having a model present arguments that reflect moral thinking one stage above the individuals' established levels. This approach applies the concepts of equilibrium and conflict that Piaget used to explain cognitive development. By presenting arguments slightly beyond the children's level of moral reasoning, the researchers created a disequilibrium that motivated the children to restructure their moral thought. The upshot of studies using this approach is that virtually any plus-stage discussion, for any length of time, seems to promote more advanced moral reasoning (Walker, 1982). Kohlberg emphasized that peer interaction and perspective taking are critical aspects of the social stimulation that challenges children to change their moral reasoning. Whereas adults characteristically impose rules and regulations on children, the give-and-take among peers gives children an opportunity to take the perspective of another person and to generate rules democratically. Kohlberg stressed that in principle, encounters with any peers can produce perspective-taking opportunities that may advance a child's moral reasoning. A research review of cross-cultural studies involving Kohlberg's theory revealed strong support for a link between perspective-taking skills and more advanced moral judgments (Gibbs & others, 2007).

stats

What is the current profile of sexual activity of adolescents? In a U.S. national survey conducted in 2015, 58 percent of twelfth-graders reported having experienced sexual intercourse, compared with 24 percent of ninth-graders (Kann & others, 2016a). By age 20, 77 percent of U.S. youth report having engaged in sexual intercourse (Dworkin & Santelli, 2007). Nationally, 46 percent of twelfth-graders, 33.5 percent of eleventh-graders, 25.5 percent of tenth-graders, and 16 percent of ninth-graders recently reported that they were currently sexually active (Kann & others, 2016a). An analysis of more than 12,000 adolescents in the Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health found a predominant overall pattern of vaginal sex first, average age of sexual initiation of 16 years, and spacing of more than one year between initiation of first and second sexual behaviors (Haydon & others, 2012). In this study, about a third of the adolescents initiated sex slightly later but initiated oral-genital and vaginal sex within the same year. Further, compared with non-Latino white adolescents, African American adolescents were more likely to engage in vaginal sex first. Also, adolescents from low-SES backgrounds were characterized by earlier sexual initiation.

Bulimia nervosa

Whereas anorexics control their eating by restricting it, most bulimics do not (Castillo & Weiselberg, 2017). Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating binge and then purges by self-induced vomiting or use of a laxative. Many people binge and purge occasionally and some experiment with it, but a person is considered to have a serious bulimic disorder if the episodes occur at least twice a week for three months

gender differences

Women have about twice the body fat of men, most of it concentrated around breasts and hips. In males, fat is more likely to go to the abdomen. On average, males grow to be 10 percent taller than females. Other physical differences are less obvious. From conception on, females have a longer life expectancy than males, and females are less likely than males to develop physical or mental disorders. The risk of coronary disease is twice as high in males as in females.

emerging adulthood

emerging adulthood is approximately 18 to 25 years of age.

gender stereotyping

generalizations based on oversimplified or outmoded assumptions about gender roles

Hormones

hormones, powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream

relational aggression

relational aggression, which involves harming someone by manipulating a relationship (Blakely-McClure & Ostrov, 2016; Casper & Card, 2017; Cooley & Fife, 2016; Orpinas, McNicholas, & Nahapetyan, 2015; Underwood, 2011). Relational aggression includes behaviors such as trying to make others dislike a certain individual by spreading malicious rumors about the person. Mixed findingsPage 395 have characterized research on whether girls show more relational aggression than boys, but one consistency in findings is that relational aggression comprises a greater percentage of girls' overall aggression than is the case for boys

sociometric status

sociometric status, a term that describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group