CH 13: Socioemotional Development
1. In addition, during the elementary school years, children become more likely to recognize? These include references to social groups in their self-descriptions, such as referring to themselves as a ? 2. That is, elementary-school-aged children are no longer as likely to think about what they do or do not do, but are more likely to think about what they can do in ? 3. Children younger than 7 made virtually no reference to the information about other children's performances. However, many children older than 7 included ?
1. social aspects of the self -Girl Scout, as a Catholic 2. comparison with others. 3. socially comparative information in their self-descriptions.
10. Self-concept refers to ? -Children can make self-evaluations in many domains of their lives— academic, athletic, appearance, and so on. 11. for some children, self-esteem reflects percep- tions that do not always match reality. Thus, high self-esteem may refer to accurate, justified perceptions of one's worth as a person and one's successes and accomplishments, but it can also refer to an arrogant, grandiose, unwarranted ? - In the same manner, low self-esteem may reflect either an accurate perception of one's shortcomings or a distorted, even pathological insecurity and inferiority. 12. Low self-esteem has been implicated in ? (5)
10. domain-specific evaluations of the self. 11. sense of superiority over others. 12. overweight and obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency
101. low peer status in childhood (low acceptance/likeability) was linked to increased probability of being ? 102. As children enter the elementary school years, _____becomes especially important in peer interchanges. 103. Until about 12 years of age, children's preference for ?
101. unemployed and having mental health problems in adulthood 102. reciprocity 103. same-sex peer groups increases.
104. sociometric status, a term that describes the extent to which ? 105. Popular children are frequently nominated as a ? 106. Average children receive an average number of both ?
104. children are liked or disliked by their peer group 105. best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers. 106. positive and negative nominations from their peers.
107. Neglected children are infrequently nominated as a? 108. Rejected children are ? 109. Controversial children are frequently nominated both as ?
107. best friend but are not disliked by their peers. 108. infrequently nominated as someone's best friend and are actively disliked by their peers. 109. someone's best friend and as being disliked.
110. Popular children have a number of __. -They give out reinforcements, listen carefully, maintain open lines of communication with peers, are happy, control their negative emotions, 111. Neglected children engage in ___. - The goal of many training programs for neglected children is to help them attract attention from their peers in a positive way 112. Rejected children often have more ?
110. social skills that contribute to their being well liked. 111. low rates of interaction with their peers and are often described as shy by peers. 112. serious adjustment problems than those who are neglected
113. The best predictor of whether rejected children would engage in delinquent behavior or drop out of school later during adolescence was? 114. Rejected children may be taught to more accurately assess whether the ? - They may be asked to engage in____ or to discuss hypothetical situations involving negative encounters with peers, such as when a peer cuts into a line ahead of them. In some programs, children are shown ? 115. social cognition—thoughts about?
113. aggression toward peers in elementary school. 114. intentions of their peers are negative. - role playing -videotapes of appropriate peer interaction and asked to draw lessons from what they have seen 115. social matters, such as the aggressive boy's interpretation of an encounter as hostile and his class- mates' perception of his behavior as inappropriate
116. five steps in processing information about their social world. They ? (5) - when aggressive boys search for cues to determine a peer's intention, they respond more ? (3) 117. Social knowledge also is involved in? They need to know what goals to pursue in poorly defined or ambiguous situations, how to initiate and maintain a social bond, and what scripts to follow to get other children to be their friends. 118. Boys are more likely to be ?
116. decode social cues, interpret, search for a response, select an optimal response, and enact. -rapidly, less efficiently, and less reflectively than do nonaggressive children. 117. children's ability to get along with peers 118. bullies than girls
119. ___ students were most likely to be affected by bullying. 120. Children who said they were bullied reported more ___, while those who did the bullying were more likely to have? 121. Researchers have found that anxious, socially withdrawn, and aggressive children are often?
119. boys and younger middle school 120. loneliness and difficulty in making friends - low grades and to smoke and drink alcohol. 121. the victims of bullying
122. Social contexts such as poverty, family, and peer contexts also influence bullying. ethnic minority children living in poverty who had behavioral problems were____, as were children whose mothers who had suboptimal mental health 123. children whose parents talked with them more, had met all or most of their friends, and who always or usually completed their homework were? 124. The social context of the peer group also plays an important role in bullying. Classmates are often aware of bullying incidents and in many cases witness bullying. In many cases, bullies torment victims to gain ____ and bullies need others to witness their power displays. Many bullies are not rejected by the peer group.
122. more likely to become bullies 123. less likely to become bullies. 124. higher status in the peer group
125. The results indicated that although young bullies may be on a developmental trajectory that over the long run is problematic, in the shorter term personal benefits of bullying often outweigh disadvantages. Frequent bullying was linked to high social status as indexed by perceived popularity in the peer group, and bullies also were characterized by self-perceived personal competence. 126. children who are bullied are more likely to experience ? (3) 127. engaging in bullying during middle school is linked to an increased likelihood of antisocial and criminal behavior?
125. 126. depression, engage in suicidal ideation, and attempt suicide than their counterparts who have not been the victims of bullying 127. later in adolescence
128. A recent study involving third- to sixth-graders revealed that engaging in cyber aggression was related to? -cyberbullying contributed to depression and suicidal ideation -being the victim of cyberbullying was linked to stress and suicidal ideation 129. School-based interventions vary greatly, ranging from involving the? 130. The results of the study indicated that only bully-victims—but not bullies—were deficient in __ Further analysis revealed that both aggressive groups of children—bullies and bully-victims—had a ?
128. loneliness, lower self-esteem, fewer mutual friendships, and lower peer popularity 129. whole school in an antibullying campaign to providing individualized social skills training. 130. perspective-taking. -deficiency in moral motivation.
13. Children with high self-esteem have greater? -High-self-esteem children are prone to both ? - A study revealed that over time aggressive children with high self-esteem increasingly valued the rewards that aggression can bring and belittled their victims 14. Self Regulation is characterized by deliberate efforts to manage one's ? 15. self-control increased from 4 to 10 years of age and that high self-control was linked to?
13. initiative, but this can produce positive or negative outcomes -prosocial and antisocial actions 14. behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement 15. lower levels of deviant behavior
131. friends can be? - Friends can foster ? 132. Companionship. Friendship provides children with a familiar partner and ___, -Stimulation. Friendship provides children with interesting___ -, Physical support. Friendship provides? 133. Ego support. Friendship provides the expectation of ? -Social comparison. Friendship provides information ?
131. cognitive and emotional resources from childhood through old age -self-esteem and a sense of well-being. 132. playmate - information, excitement, and amusement - time, resources, and assistance 133. support, encouragement, and feedback -about where the child stands
134. Intimacy in friendships is characterized by? 135. Sixth-grade students who did not have a friend engaged in ? 136. constructivist approach A learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of ?
134. self- disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts, dont appear until early adolescence 135. less prosocial behavior (cooperation, sharing, helping others), had lower grades, and were more emotionally distressed (displaying depression, low well-being) than their counterparts who had one or more friends. 136. individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher.
137. direct instruction approach A structured, teacher-centered approach that is characterized by ? 138. Some experts in educational psychology believe that many effective teachers use ? 139. demanded increased accountability from schools. One result has been the spread of ?
137. teacher direction and control, mastery of academic skills, high expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent on learning tasks, and efforts to keep negative emotional expression to a minimum. 138. both a constructivist and a direct instruction approach 139. state-mandated tests to measure just what students had or had not learned
140. Advocates argue that statewide standardized testing will have a number of positive effects. These include improved ? (7) 141. Critics argue that the NCLB legislation is doing more harm than good. One criticism stresses that using a ? 142. Critics point out that teachers end up spending far too much class time ?
140. student performance; more time teaching the subjects that are tested; high expectations for all students; identification of poorly performing schools, teachers, and administrators; and improved confidence in schools as test scores rise. 141. single test as the sole indicator of students' progress and competence presents a very narrow view of students' skills 142. "teaching to the test" by drilling students and having them memorize isolated facts at the expense of teaching that focuses on thinking skills, which students need for success in life
143. Consider also the implications of the fact that each state is allowed to have different criteria for what constitutes? 144. Critics argue that schools have not done a good job of educating low-income, ethnic minority students to overcome the barriers to their achievement, that's why they have? 145. schools in low-income areas are more likely to have a high proportion of students with ? (3) -they also are more likely to have young teachers with less ? (2)
143. passing or failing grades on tests designated for NCLB inclusion. 144. more difficulties in school 145. low achievement test scores, low graduation rates, and a smaller proportion of students going to college; -experience; and they are more likely to encourage rote learning
146. Many of these inner-city schools are still informally segregated, are grossly underfunded, and do not provide adequate opportunities for children to learn effectively. Thus, the effects of ? 147. African American and Latino students are much less likely than non-Latino White or Asian American students to be enrolled in academic, college pre- paratory programs and are much more likely to be enrolled in ? 148. Asian American students are far more likely than other ethnic minority groups to take advanced ? - African American students are twice as likely as Latinos, Native Americans, or Whites to be ?
146. SES and the effects of ethnic minority status are often intertwined 147. remedial and special education programs. 148. math and science courses in high school. -suspended from school.
149. strategies for improving relationships among ethnically diverse students: 5
149. Turn the class into a jigsaw classroom, everyone works on small part toward a common goal -Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students. -Reduce bias. Teachers can reduce bias by displaying images of children from diverse ethnic and cultural groups -View the school and community as a team. -Be a competent cultural mediator.
16. self-regulation was a protective factor for children growing up in? 17. The increased capacity for self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the? 18. His fourth stage, industry versus inferiority, appears during middle and late childhood. When children are encouraged in their efforts to make, build, and work their ? -parents who see their children's efforts at making things as "mischief" or "making a mess" encourage children's?
16. low socioeconomic (SES) conditions 17. brain's prefrontal cortex 18. When children are encouraged in their efforts to make, build, and work -development of a sense of inferiority.
19. Consider children who are slightly below average in intelligence. They are too bright to be in special classes but not bright enough to be in gifted classes. Failing frequently in their academic efforts, they develop a? - By contrast, consider children whose sense of industry is disparaged at home. A series of sensitive and committed teachers may revitalize their sense of industry 20. Developmental Understandings include: Improved emotional? -Increased understanding that more than one? 21. Increased tendency to be aware of the?
19. sense of inferiority. 20. understanding-understanding pride and shame -emotion can be experienced in a particular situation. 21. events leading to emotional reactions.
22. Ability to suppress or? -The use of? -effective at cognitively managing their emotions, such as soothing themselves after an upset. 23. A capacity for ? 24. In middle and late childhood, attachment becomes more sophisticated and as children's social worlds expand to include peers, teachers, and others, they typically spend ?
22. conceal negative emotional reactions. -self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. 23. genuine empathy. 24. less time with parents.
25. secure attachment is associated with a lower level of? 26. secure attachment was linked to a higher level of children's? 27. Older children generate more coping alternatives to ? -older kids can shift their thoughts to less stressful things 28. Older children are also better at reframing or ?
25. internalized symptoms, anxiety, and depression in children 26. emotion regulation and less difficulty in identifying emotions. 27. stressful conditions and use more cognitive coping strategies 28. changing their perception of a stressful situation.
29. families that have not been supportive and are characterized by turmoil or trauma, children may be so overwhelmed by stress that they do not? 30. Among the outcomes for children who experience disasters are ? (4) 31. the mothers who developed post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression were less likely to ?
29. use such coping strategies 30. acute stress reactions, depression, panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder 31. help their children regulate their emotions and behavior than mothers who were only depressed or only had PTSD
32. Preconventional reasoning is the lowest level of moral reasoning, said Kohlberg. At this level, ? 33. Stage 1. Heteronomous morality is the first stage in preconventional reasoning. At this stage, moral thinking is? 34. Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange is the second stage of preconventional reasoning. At this stage, individuals reason that ?
32. good and bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments. 33. tied to punishment. For example, children think that they must obey because they fear punishment for disobedience. 34. pursuing their own interests is the right thing to do, but they let others do the same.
35. Conventional reasoning is the second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, individuals apply certain standards, but they are the ? 36. Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity is Kohlberg's third stage of moral development. At this stage, individuals value? -. Children and adolescents often adopt their parents' ? 37. Stage 4. Social systems morality is the fourth stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, moral judgments are based on understanding the ?
35. standards set by others, such as parents or the government. 36. trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments -moral standards at this stage, seeking to be thought of by their parents as a "good girl" or a "good boy." 37. social order, law, justice, and duty. For example, adolescents may reason that in order for a community to work effectively, it needs to be protected by laws that are adhered to by its members.
38. Postconventional reasoning is the highest level in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, the individual recognizes? 39. Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights is the fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason that? - A person evaluates the validity of actual laws and realizes that social systems can be examined in terms of the ? 40. Stage 6. Universal ethical principles is the sixth and highest stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standard based on ?
38. alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code. 39. values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law. -degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values. 40. universal human rights. When faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person reasons that conscience should be followed, even though the decision might bring risk.
4. In middle and late childhood, children show an increase in perspective taking, the ability to assume other? 5. children become aware that each individual is aware of the other's perspective and that putting oneself in the other's place is a way of judging the other person's ? (3) 6. Perspective taking is especially thought to be important in relation to whether children develop ? - In terms of prosocial behavior, taking another's perspective improves children's likelihood of ?
4. people's perspectives and understand their thoughts and feelings. 5. intentions, purposes, and actions. 6. prosocial or antisocial attitudes and behavior. -understanding and sympathizing with others who are distressed or in need.
41. advances in children's cognitive development did not ensure development of moral reasoning. Instead, moral reasoning also reflects children's experiences in ? 42. By presenting arguments slightly beyond the children's level of moral reasoning, the researchers created a ? -. The upshot of studies using this approach is that virtually any plus-stage discussion, for any length of time, seems to promote more advanced moral reasoning 43. Kohlberg emphasized that ______ (2) are critical aspects of the social stimulation that challenges children to change their moral reasoning.
41. dealing with moral questions and moral conflict. 42. disequilibrium that motivated the children to restructure their moral thought 43. peer interaction and perspective-taking (peers give you these opportunities)
44. Kohlberg's theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on? 45. Moral reasons can sometimes be a shelter? 46. Kohlberg emphasized that his stages of moral reasoning are universal, but some critics claim his theory is ?
44. moral thought and not enough emphasis on moral behavior 45. for immoral behavior. 46. culturally biased.
47. Kohlberg argued that family processes are essentially unimportant in children's moral development. inductive discipline, which uses reasoning and focuses children's attention on the? -They also stress that parents' moral values influence ? 48. Carol argues that Kohlberg's theory is gender biased. justice perspective by Kohlberg is A moral perspective that focuses on the? 49. care perspective, which is a moral perspective that views people in terms of their?
47. consequences of their actions for others, positively influences moral development -children's developing moral thoughts 48. rights of the individual and in which individuals independently make moral decisions. 49. connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal com- munication, relationships with others, and concern for others.
50. Moral identity. Individuals have a moral identity when? 51. Living in high-poverty contexts often undermines? 52. Moral character. A person with moral character has the willpower, desires, and integrity to stand up to ? (4)
50. moral notions and moral commitments are central to their lives 51. moral attitudes and reduces tolerance for divergent viewpoints. 52. pressure, overcome distractions and disappointments, and behave morally
53. Moral exemplars. Moral exemplars are people who have? - Their moral personality, identity, character, and set of virtues reflect moral excellence and commitment. 54. domain theory of moral development Theory that traces social knowledge and reasoning to ? (3) -These domains arise from children's and adolescents' attempts to understand and deal with ? 55. social conventional reasoning Thoughts about social consensus and convention established in ? -The rules themselves are arbitrary, such as raising your hand in class before speaking(sanctions if you violate)
53. lived exemplary moral lives 54. moral, social conventional, and personal domains. -different forms of social experience. 55. order to control behavior and maintain the social system.
56. Moral rules are? (3) -Ex) rules about lying, stealing (more serious to break moral rules) 57. Moral judgments involve concepts of ____, whereas social conventional judgments are concepts of ____ 58. Moral issues include actions such as? - Conventional issues involve matters such as ? -Personal issues involve such things as what kinds of?
56. obligatory, widely accepted, and some- what impersonal 57. justice -social organization. 58. lying to parents about engaging in a deviant behavior or stealing money from a sibling. -curfews and who takes out the garbage. - music to like, what styles of clothing to wear,
59. Sympathy—an other-oriented emotional response in which the observer experiences the? 60. when children share, it is usually not for reasons of empathy but for the fun of the social play ritual or out of imitation. Then, at about 4 years of age, a combination of empathic awareness and adult encouragement produces a sense of obligation on the part of the child to share with others. 61. By the start of the elementary school years, children begin to express objective ideas ?
59. same or similar emo- tions as the other person is feeling—often motivates prosocial behavior 61. about fairness
62. In the past, a well-adjusted boy was supposed to be? - A well-adjusted girl was supposed to be (3)? 63. These notions reflect gender stereotypes, which are ? 64.Women have about____ the body fat of men, most of it concentrated around breasts and hips. In males, fat is more likely to go to the ___. On average, males grow to be___ percent taller than females.
62. independent, aggressive, and powerful. -dependent, nurturing, and uninterested in power. 63. broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males. 64. twice -abdomen - 10
65. From conception on,_____ have a longer life expectancy than males, and females are less likely than males to develop____. The risk of coronary dis- ease is twice as high in ? 66. Female brains are approximately ___ percent smaller than male brains. However, female brains have ? 67. One part of the hypothalamus responsible for sexual behavior is ?
65. females - physical or mental disorders -males as in females. 66. 10 -more folds 67. larger in men than women
68. An area of the parietal lobe that functions in visuospatial skills is? 69. No gender differences in ____have been revealed, but some gender differences have been found in some cognitive areas 70. There is strong evidence that females outperform males in ?
68. larger in males than females 69. general intelligence 70. reading and writing.
7. good perspective-taking skills were linked to being able to regain a ? 8. In middle and late childhood, children become increasingly skeptical of some ? - For example, in one study, 10- to 11-year-olds were more likely to reject other children's self-reports that they were smart and honest than were 6- to 7-year-olds 9. Self-esteem refers to ? Ex) thinking you are a good person
7. neutral emotional state after being emotionally aroused 8. sources of information about psychological traits. 9. global evaluations of the self; it is also called self-worth or self-image.
71. A research review revealed that boys have better? Having a stronger masculine gender role was linked to better ? 72. One of the most consistent gender differences is that boys are more ? 73. When verbal aggression is examined, gender differences often ___; sometimes, though, verbal aggression is more ___
71. visuospatial skills than girls -spatial ability in males and females 72. physically aggressive than girls are found in all cultures 73. disappear -pronounced in girls
74. relational aggression, which involves harming someone by? -Relational aggression includes behaviors such as trying to make others? -more common in girls 75. Females express emotion more than do males, are better than males at ____, smile more, cry more, and are happier -girls show more positive & internalized emotions 76. Researchers have found that girls are more _____ and boys are more _____
74. manipulating a relationship -dislike a certain individual by spreading malicious rumors about the person. 75. decoding emotion 76. "people-oriented" -"things oriented"
77. girls spend more time and energy building relationships, while boys spend moretime alone, playing video games, and playing sports; that girls work at part-time jobs that are people-oriented such as waitressing and babysitting, whileboys are more likely to take part-time jobs that involve manual labor andusing tools; 78. Rapport talk is the language of conversation and a way of? - Females enjoy rapport talk and conversation that is relationship-oriented more than males do. 79. Report talk is talk that? - Public speaking is an example of report talk. Males hold center stage through report talk with verbal performances such as storytelling, joking, and lecturing with information. -males do this
78. establishing connections and negotiating relationships. 79. gives information
80. Researchers have found that adolescent girls engage in more ____ and are better at actively ____than are boys 81. Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in? 82. girls earn better grades and complete____. Males are more likely than females to be assigned to ___. Girls are more likely than boys to be engaged with ? (4)
80. self-disclosure (communication of intimate details about themselves) in close relationships -listening in a conversation 81. more prosocial behavior 82. high school at a higher rate than boys -special/remedial education classes -academic material, be attentive in class, put forth more academic effort, and participate more in class
83. Compliance, following rules, and being neat and orderly are characterized by ? 84. Boys are more likely than girls to have a ? (3) -Boys are more likely than girls to be criticized? -School personnel tend to stereotype boys' behavior as? 85. Educators worry that girls' tendency to be compliant and quiet comes at a cost: ____. - In many classrooms, teachers spend more time __. - Boys get more instruction than girls and more __. -Girls and boys enter first grade with roughly equal levels of self-esteem. Yet by the middle school years, ?
83. girls more 84. learning disability, ADHD, or to drop out of school. -by their teachers. - problematic. 85. diminished assertiveness. -watching and interacting with boys, whereas girls work and play quietly on their own -help when they have trouble with a question. -girls' self-esteem is lower than boys'.
86. Single-sex public education has increased dramatically in recent years. no documented benefits of single-sex education for? 87. arguments against single-sex education, the strongest is its reduction in opportunities for? 88. Although there has been greater acceptance of androgyny and similarities in male and female behavior in the United States, in many countries gender roles have remained gender-specific. For example, in many Middle Eastern countries, the division of labor between males and females is dramatic. Males are ?
86. low-income students of color 87. boys and girls to work together in a supervised, purposeful environment. 88. socialized and schooled to work in the public sphere, females in the private world of home and child rearing.
89. Parents not only influence children's in-school achievement, but they also make? 90. Elementary school children tend to receive less physical discipline than they did as preschoolers. Instead of spanking or coercive holding, their parents are more likely to use? (4) 91. During middle and late childhood, some control is transferred from parent to child. The major shift to autonomy does not occur until about the age of _____. A key developmental task as children move toward autonomy is learning to relate to adults ?
89. decisions about children's out-of-school activities.-sports 90. deprivation of privileges, appeals to the child's self-esteem, comments designed to increase the child's sense of guilt, and statements that the child is responsible for his or her actions. 91. 12 or later. -outside the family on a regular basis—adults such as teachers, who interact with the child much differently from parents.
92. Mothers are more likely than fathers to take a? 93. Researchers have found that family management practices are positively related to? 94. Among the most important family management practices in this regard are maintaining a_____, such as establishing routines for homework, chores, meals, bedtime, and so on, and ____.
92. managerial role in parenting. 93. students' grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems 94. structured and organized family environment -effectively monitoring the child's behavior.
95. Divorce and remarriages have increaseed. The couple must define and strengthen their ? 96. Three common types of stepfamily structure are ? (3) 97. children and adolescents who had been in a simple stepfamily (stepfather or stepmother) for a number of years were adjusting _____ and were functioning well in comparison with children and adolescents in conflicted non-divorced families and children and adolescents in complex (blended) stepfamilies.
95. marriage and at the same time renegotiate the biological parent-child relationships and establish stepparent-stepchild and stepsibling relationships 96. (1) stepfather, (2) stepmother, and (3) blended or complex. 97. better than they did in the early years of the remarried family -
98. children in simple families (stepmother, stepfather) often show better adjustment than theirs? 99. As in divorced families, children in stepfamilies show more? -majority of children in stepfamilies do not have problems. 100. Engaging in positive interactions with peers, resolving conflicts with peers in nonaggressive ways, and having quality friendships in middle and late childhood not only create ?
98. counterparts in complex (blended) families 99. adjustment problems than children in nondivorced families 100. positive outcomes at this time in children's lives, but also are linked to more positive relationship outcomes in adolescence and adulthood