Ch 3 - Research Ethics

Is it the researcher's responsibility not only to adhere to the guidelines but also to be familiar with the most recent developments?

Ethical standards, "norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable & unacceptable behavior (Resnik, 2015), change in response to changes in research practices.

deception

researchers purposely mislead participants. should be used if no other way exists to collect data & it does not harm participants.

intentional deception

should be used only if there is no other way to collect the data and the deception does not harm participants.

Debriefing Participants

talking with participants immediately following the research activity to explain the purpose of the study and to provide information that was withheld from participants.

Two Broad Ethical Responsibilities by the Researcher - Part 1

1.) Responsibility is scientific: they are responsible to their profession & discipline. Guidelines developed & prescribed by the researcher's sponsor (e.g., dept, univ, prof. assoc, or funding agency) MUST be followed. They are responsible for developing & conducting research projects that will yield knowledge worth knowing - researchers reports should be written with transparency so readers can understand the logic & activities that lead to the development of the topic, problem, hypothesis, or research question; understand the definitions of what is being studied; be able to follow the collection & analysis of data or empirical evidence; & clearly identify the results of the study so the participants time & energy is not wasted or abused.

Two Broad Ethical Responsibilities by the Researcher - Part 2

2.) Researchers must consider the ethical issues that arise from their relationship w/ research participants. Regardless of how close or distant those relationships are, researchers must assess the extent to which the nature of the researcher-participant relationship is affecting the collection, interpretation & reporting of data

Researcher's Ethical Responsibility

All ethical issues of conducting & reporting research are the researcher's responsibility.

Ensuring Accuracy

Data must be accurate throughout the research process - starting with designing & developing the study, collecting data & to the methods used to interpret the data. This includes checking the manuscript for errors caused by typing or editing.

research protocol

a standardized set of procedures that the researcher will follow with each participant

What is Justice?

an issue of fairness (National Commission, 1979). Ideally, all participants would be treated equally. In the past, however, research in disciplines other than communication has violated this criterion by creating risks for participants and, later, using the research results to generate benefits for those not involved in the research study. Thus, justice was not upheld because the benefits were withheld from research participants who took the risk of participating. Sometimes it is difficult to treat all participants equally, especially if the goal of research is to explore differences between and among groups of people (e.g., differences between supervisors and subordinates or differences between males and females). But justice and equal treatment should always be the researcher's goal. This type of inequality can also surface in communication research when training is offered to one group of participants and not another before the Page 40outcome measures are collected. At the conclusion of the study, the researcher should offer the same training to those who were initially denied it. Hope, Ayres, Ayres, and Baker (1995) provided this type of justice in their study of public-speaking apprehension. In this study, participants who were apprehensive about public speaking, as identified by their self-report scores, were contacted and asked to participate in a study. In two of the conditions, participants were assigned to workshops to receive some type of intervention for public-speaking apprehension, a method for reducing anxiety about communicating. Participants assigned to the third condition were the control group and did not participate in any workshop activities. However, after all data were collected, participants in the control condition were given the opportunity to enroll in a workshop for apprehension reduction. But the issue of justice raises a larger issue. In selecting individuals to participate in a study, a researcher must carefully examine why he or she made those population and sample choices. The researcher should ask, "Am I systematically selecting one group of people because they are (1) easily available, (2) in a position making it difficult for them to deny participating in the research, or (3) in a position in which they can be manipulated into participating?" Ideally, research participants are selected because they have characteristics relevant to the theoretical or practical issue being examined. Although the three principles—beneficence, respect for persons, and justice—guide the development of the research design with respect to the use of research participants, they do not prescribe a specific set of ethical rules for researchers to follow. Each research situation is unique, causing unique applications of the three principles. At times, these principles may even be in conflict with one another (Vanderpool, 1996). The researcher's goal, however, is to design a research study that upholds these principles to the fullest degree possible. As you can see, how the researcher treats or interacts with research participants is a significant element of research ethics. As a result, researcher integrity and the rights of participants in research studies are closely intertwined. These issues are so central to academic research that formalized procedures have been established to ensure both. Universities and funding agencies sponsor most academic research, and they require that research conducted under their sponsorship follow guidelines for informing participants of their rights and the potential risks of participating in research studies. These formal procedures require the researcher to gain permission to conduct research before any aspect of the research is conducted. In most universities and colleges, the institutional review board reviews the research proposal and grants the researcher approval to conduct the research.

Confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals.

What does Respect for Persons mean?

(1) treating individuals as capable of making decisions, and (2) protecting those who are not capable of making their own decisions (National Commission, 1979). Researchers should treat participants as if they are capable of deliberating about personal goals and capable of determining their own actions. In other words, the researcher should refrain from making choices for participants. The research process should be described and explained, and then the participant should make a choice about volunteering to participate. Unfortunately, the heavy-handed demeanor of some researchers leaves the impression that participants have no choice but to participate. When a researcher communicates with research participants this way, the researcher is being disrespectful. When individuals are not capable of self-determination. Usually, these individuals are those who are sick or disabled or those whose circumstances restrict their opportunity to deliberate freely. Thus, respect for the immature and the incapacitated is evident when the researcher refrains from placing these individuals in the position where they would be asked to make choices about research participation.

Using confederates (Ethical Issues)

-Someone who pretends to be part of the study but is working with the researcher without the participants knowing.

Researchers & the OHRP (Human Research Protections)

the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP), a unit of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. These guidelines have been adopted by universities and funding agencies. Communication researchers who study communication about health issues or in health contexts are also required to follow the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) guidelines established by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. These guidelines provide comprehensive federal protection for the privacy of personal health information. The website URLs for these guidelines and others of interest to communication researchers are listed on the author's website at http://www.joannkeyton.com/research-methods. Other countries have developed similar ethical guidelines (see Israel & Hay, 2006).

ethical issues in research

1. right to informed consent 2. right to privacy 3. right to confidentiality 4. right to protection from deception 5. right to debriefing

Ethical Issues in Reporting Research

1.) Ensuring accuracy of the info represented. 2.) Protecting intellectual property rights. 3.) A carryover from ethical issues that surface in conducting the research is protecting the identities of individuals.

Avoiding Plagiarism

1.) Researchers should indicate w/ quotation marks when using the exact words of others & provide a citation. 2.) Citation and reference info must be given when summarizing/paraphrasing the work of others. 3.) Complete citation & reference info must be given when mentioning or making a reference to the ideas or significant contributions of others.

informed consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate in writing. It should include the following info: Identification of the principal researcher & sponsoring organization Description of the overall purpose of the investigation Main features of the research process including a description of what data will be collected The expected duration of participation

informed consent & qualitative research

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Ethics & Studying Communication

Ethics is not added to research projects because it is a requirement to add it. Ethical issues guide all decisions, including whether to conduct research & how, who will be asked to participate and why, & what the benefits are that they & others will accrue. It is the social responsibility of researchers to ethically plan & conduct their research.

Institutional Review Board

Federal agencies that sponsor research (e.g., the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation) require that universities have a formal process in place for considering the soundness and reasonableness of research proposals. These formal considerations are usually conducted by groups typically identified as institutional review boards (IRBs) or human subjects review committees; universities require their faculty and students to develop and submit a research proposal for the board's or committee's approval before any data are collected. Policies and procedures differ among universities, but if you intend to use the data collected to prepare a paper for distribution to any audience other than your professor, or if there is any possibility you will do so in the future, approval is probably needed. The primary role of such university groups is to determine if the rights and welfare of research participants are adequately protected (Sieber, 1992). By examining a research protocol or proposal before the researcher starts a project, an institutional review board can ensure that the research project adheres to both sound ethical and scientific or systematic principles. After its review, the board or committee can take one of several actions: (1) the research proposal can be approved and the researcher conducts the research as proposed; (2) the committee or board can request the researcher to change some aspect of the research proposal and resubmit the proposal for approval; and (3) the research proposal can be denied or not approved. After research protocol is approved: carries legal implications, it must reflect what you actually do. Minor changed in procedures will require a separate approval.

Preparing the IRB application

First: carefully consider risks and complexity of the research you are proposing. Have you designed your study to do good, but do no harm? Second: take the training that your university recommends or requires. Third: read the directions of the IRB application and fill in the information requested. Leaving a section blank will inevitably result in the return of your proposal. In completing the application, pay particular attention to the rationale you present for your study. Fourth: consider asking questions before submitting your proposal and be willing to answer questions from those who administer your university's IRB or human subject review. As you can see, Fitch recommends treating the research proposal process as a communicative process in which both sides (the researcher and IRB) need information from one another.

Using online technology

Issues with using online technology - 1.) when researchers & participants create & maintain their identities. 2.) how both the researcher & participant establish & maintain their relationship.

Protecting the Identities of Participants

Not an issue in quantitative research since single participants is not the focus or interest of the research study - find a group of people described by their characteristics. With qualitative research: Identities should be concealed (e.g., changing a name in a research report or partially concealing info.)

Upholding anonymity and confidentiality (Ethical Issues)

Personal information of the participant is never attached to the data - researchers should never ask for a SSN or student ID to keep track of participant data.

Physical & Psychological Harm

Physical harm more commonly occurs in medical research Psychological harm can occur as a result of sharing controversial opinions, reliving painful memories, roleplaying in uncomfortable situations, etc. As a researcher, you may tend to assume no or minimal psychological harm - test that assumption

Videorecording & Audiorecording Participants

Raise ethical concerns - 1.) participants should only be recorded if they have been informed by the researcher. 2.) Participants' consent to be recorded must be obtained thru written consent. 3.) video/audio records should be treated like other data - w/ confidentiality.

Researcher's Integrity & Research Topic for Participant Studies

Researchers must have integrity & be honest & fair in interacting & working with research participants. Researchers must be concerned w/how their research topic & procedures could create physical/psychological harm to participants by contemplating what ethical standards are upheld by their communities & larger societal groups.

Research Designs

They are developed & research is conducted through a series of decisions - decisions made by the researcher team. Decisions require researchers to evaluate what do do or how to proceed based on the setting or context of their research. Researchers also like others, view ethical standards differently. Major ethical violations, like plagiarism or falsifying data, occur infrequently. More minor ethical violations, such as not fully describing a research design or keeping inadequate records for the research process are more common.

Three Ethical Principles

Three ethical principles—beneficence, respect for persons, and justice—were identified in this report to guide researchers in designing the aspects of the research process that directly affect or involve research participants. These principles not only guide this aspect of research design but must also be simultaneously upheld, as they are the foundation on which institutional review boards evaluate research proposals.

Researchers & Protection to Participants (Human Subjects)

Two Prominent Issues - 1.) A college or university implements their own interpretation & applications of the federal regulations. This means that a research design allowed at one university may be disallowed at another. the second issue is that the federal guidelines were developed for medical research, not necessarily social science research - it can be difficult to apply these standards to the types of quantitative & especially qualitative research that communication scholars & students conduct. Remember to always consult with your college or university's institutional review board before designing & conducting any research project to learn about their required forms & approvals.

What does beneficence mean?

the well-being of participants; the researcher must meet the obligation to maximize possible benefits while minimizing possible harms. means that the well-being of participants is protected. The researcher must protect the participant from harm as well as meet the obligation to maximize possible benefits while minimizing possible harms. How does this work? Ideally, the outcomes of your research would provide immediate benefits for those who participated and longer-term benefits for individuals like those who participated, while minimizing risk for participants. You can justify a research project that does not provide immediate benefits for those who agree to participate in your study if the long-term benefits improve knowledge or aid in the development of more effective procedures or treatments. In other words, the long-term benefits outweigh the minimal risk participants might encounter.