Ch. 4: Prenatal Development and Birth

parental alliance

cooperation between a mother and a father based on their mutual commitment to their children. In a parenting alliance, the parents support each other in their shared parental roles

How do fathers experience pregnancy?

couvade- gain weight, feel sick, stress, labor pain

What body parts develop during the embryonic period?

heart, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, basic organs and features (no sex organs)

What affects the parent-infant bond?

holding, examining, and feeding newborn

threshold effect

in prenatal development, when a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level

Why is the newborn mortality rate much higher in some countries than in others?

teratogens, cultural practices, socioeconomic status, access to medical help, malnutrition

age of viability

the age at which a fetus might survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medicare is available

embryo

the name for a developing human organism from about the third through the eighth week after conception

fetus

the name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth

implantation

the process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop

false positive

the result of a laboratory test that reports something as true when in fact it is not true. This can occur for pregnancy tests, when a woman might not be pregnant even though the test says she is, or during pregnancy when a problem is reported that actually does not exist

fetal period

the stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own.

parent-infant bond

the strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn

What is the long-term prediction for the health of a very tiny or vulnerable newborn who survives?

1/2 die

Why does risk analysis fail to precisely predict damage to a fetus?

Although all teratogens increase the risk of harm, none always cause damage.

What factors determine whether a potentially harmful substance or circumstance will actually have detrimental effects on the developing fetus? What are the causes and consequences of low birth weight?

Factors: timing, dose, and genes Causes: teratogens, mother's health, multiple births, placental problems, malnutrition, age Consequences: medical difficulties, psychological problems

What impact do fathers have during and after birth?

Fathers impact mothers, presence comfort mothers and babies

What are the three major reasons pregnancy continues in months after the fetus could live outside the uterus?

1. 5 lbs. gained 2. maturation of lungs, brain, and heart 3. bond between mother and child

What are the three stages of pregnancy, and what are the major developmental changes in each stage?

1. Germinal Period major developmental changes: dingle-celled zygote multiplies into more than 100 cells that will form placenta and embryo. Growing organism travels down fallopian tube to implant in uterus. 2. Embryonic Period major developmental changes: heart begins to beat, eyes/ears/nose/mouth form, basic human organs and features (w/out sex organs) 3. Fetal Period major developmental changes: sex organs develop, all organs and body structures are formed, viability at 22 weeks

List four reasons a baby might be born LBW.

1. baby born preterm 2. maternal malnutrition 3. Small for Gestational age (SGA) 4. underweight, under eating, underage, and smoking

cesarean section (c-section)

A surgical birth, in which incisions are through the mother's abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina

doula

A woman who helps with the birth process

What are the potential consequences of drinking alcohol during pregnancy?

An embryo exposed to alcohol can develop fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which distorts the facial features (especially the eyes, ears, and upper lip). It leads to hyperactivity, poor concentration, impaired spatial reasoning, and slow learning.

What usually occurs in the first few minutes of a newborn's life?

Apgar scale Baby cries, breathes, gets examined and weighed, handed to mother for nursing

What factors increase or decrease the risk of spina bifida?

Data are definitive on a maternal allele that results in low levels of folic acid, which can produce neural-tube defects—either spina bifida, when the tail of the spine is not enclosed properly (in healthy embryos, enclosure occurs at about week 7) or anencephaly, when part of the brain is missing. Neuraltubeefects are more common in certain ethnic groups (Irish, English, and Egyptian) than in others (most Asian and African groups), which led researchers to discover the allele that prevents the normal utilization of folic acid.

What are the differences among LBW, VLBW, and ELBW?

Low birthweight- under 2500 grams Very low birthweight- under 1500 grams Extremely low birthweight- under 1000 grams

What kinds of changes does the birth of a child cause in family relationships, and what can couples do to help ensure they adjust to these changes in ways that are best for the child?

Mothers and fathers may fight under stress or pressure without communication, but family and society can offer support. Mothers may experience postpartum depression, but nursing and attentive fathers can add comfort and reassurance. Fathers may also experience pregnancy, so a parental alliance is essential to benefit the entire family. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle before pregnancy also limits complications.

How does timing affect the risk of harm to the fetus?

Some teratogens cause damage only during a critical period, when a particular part of the body is forming.

Why is it difficult to establish the impact of behavioral teratogens?

Some teratogens cause no physical defects but affect the brain, making a child hyperactive, antisocial, or learning-disabled. Behavioral teratogens can be subtle but their effects may last a lifetime. Nurture- environmental factors may also shape behavior

How do culture and customs affect one's exposure to teratogens?

Some things such as global warming, HIV, food shortages, wars, nutrition, drug use, and pollution trend in various cultures. Knowing the trend of a certain culture will help prevent one's exposure to such teratogens.

germinal period

The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation

How have U.S. LBW rates changed in the past decade?

The rate fell throughout most of the twentieth century, reaching a low of 7.0 percent in 1990. But then it rose again, with the 2010 rate at 8.1 percent. The U.S. rate is higher than that of virtually every other developed nation.

embryonic period

The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop

What do newborns do to aid their survival?

breathe, hiccup, sneeze, thrash, shiver, tuck legs, push away, suck, root, swallow, cry, spit up, other responsive reflexes

preterm

a birth that occurs 3 or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of the typical pregnancy

extremely low birthweight (ELBW)

a body weight at birth of less than 2 lbs, 3 oz

very low birthweight (VLBW)

a body weight at birth of less than 3 lbs, 5 oz

low birthweight (LBW)

a body weight at birth of less than 5.5 lbs

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

a cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and reduced intellectual ability, that may occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant

kangaroo care

a form of newborn care in which mothers rest their babies on their naked chests

anoxia

a lack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can cause brain damage or death

postpartum depression

a new mother's feelings of inadequacy and sadness in the days and weeks after giving birth

Apgar scale

a quick assessment of a newborn's health. The baby's color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone, and respiratory effort are given a score of 1, 2, or 2 after one and five minutes. 10 is rarely attained

What are the signs of postpartum depression?

a sense of inadequacy and sadness following euphoria, thoughts of abusing/neglecting infant, guilt, not compelled to nurse or comfort baby

small for gestational age (SGA)

a term for a baby whose birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception.

Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)

a test often administered to newborns that measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes

Why are developmentalists concerned that surgery is often part of birth?

after-birth complications (such as obesity later) and reduced breast feeding

What major milestone is reached about halfway through the fetal period?

age of viability

behavioral teratogens

agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning

teratogen

an agent or condition, including viruses, drugs, and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death

ultrasound

an image of a fetus produced by using high frequency sound waves

reflex

an unlearned, involuntary action in response to a stimulus

What teratogens may harm the fetus's developing body structure?

diseases, drugs, pollutants

What are the major differences among a doula, a midwife, and a doctor?

doula- emotionally supports laboring woman during birth process, works with doctor and midwife midwife- delivers baby and performs medical exams doctor- medical training, can perform surgeries

What are the results of kangaroo care?

newborns sleep better, gain weight, are more alert, adjustment to life outside womb, sensitive to parents, reduced death

How has the Apgar scale increased newborns' survival rate?

provides a quick evaluation of infant's health after 1 and 5 minutes, measuring color, heartbeat, reflexes, muscles, and breathing

Why has the rate of cesarean sections increased?

safe and easy for mother, quick for hospital and easy to schedule one c-section can lead to more emergency situations

couvade

symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers