ch 6
phase 1 of attachment
(birth-2months) infants instinctually attach to any adult
Erik Erikson's view of attachment
-physical comfort plays role - physical comfort & sensitive care are key to establishing basic sense of trust in infants - sense of trust is foundation for attachment
insecure disorganized babies
babies that show insecurity by being disorganized and disoriented - babies might seem dazed, confused, fearful - show strong patterns of avoidance & resistance/ display certain specified behaviors like extreme fearfulness around caregiver
physiological characteristics
been linked w/ different temperaments - inhibited temperament is associated w/ unique physiological pattern that includes high & stable heart rate, high level of hormone cortisol, and high activity in right frontal lobe of the brain
Infants' Social Sophistication and Insight
Reflected in infants' perception of others' actions - researchers discovered that infants are more socially sophisticated & insightful at younger ages than envisioned
self-conscious emotions
Require self-awareness, especially consciousness and a sense of "me" - emotions include jealously, embarrassment, pride, shame -most occur for first time at some point in second half of first year - also called other conscious emotions because involve emotional reactions of others when they are generated
Caregiving styles and attachment
Secure: Sensitive to signals & consistently available to respond to infants' needs Avoidant: Often do not respond to signals and have little physical contact Resistant: Inconsistent responses; Sometimes they respond to their babies' needs & sometimes they don't Disorganized: Neglectful or abusive In some cases they're depressed
reciprocal socialization
Socialization that is bidirectional; children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children. - reciprocal interchanges & mutual influence processes are sometimes referred to as transactional - types of behaviors involved in reciprocal socialization in infancy are temporally connected, mutually contingent behaviors such as one partner imitating sound of another/mother responding w/ vocalization
Harry Harlow
Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers - the monkeys raised by actual mothers ran to them when frightened because it provided comfort & associated it w/ security while those raised by artificial mothers didn't run to their mothers for comfort
pain cry
Sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding; no preliminary moaning is present - stimulated by high intensity stimulus
developmental social neuroscience & attachment
attachment has been major focus of theory & research on developmental social neuroscience - Theory & research on role of brain's regions in mother-infant attachment - theoretical view proposed that prefrontal cortex has important role in maternal attachment behavior, as do subcortical regions of amygdala & hypothalamus
internal working model
attachment, a simple mental model of caregiver, their relationship, and self as deserving of nurturant care - caregiver influences infant's & later child's subsequent responses to other people
Michael Lewis
distinguishes between primary emotions & self conscious emotions
Alan Sroufe
early secure attachment was linked w/ positive emotional health, high self esteem, self confidence, and socially competent interactions w/ peers - meta analysis concluded that secure attachment in infancy was related to social competence w/ peers in early childhood
Rothbart's view
early theoretical models of temperament stressed the way we are moved by our positive & negative emotions/level of arousal, with our actions driven by these tendencies - emphasizes that individuals can engage in a more cognitive, flexible approach to stressful circumstances
extraversion/surgency
includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and laughter - uninhibited children fit this category - revealed that preschool children w/ high levels of surgency were more likely to engage in number of obesity related eating behaviors like eating in absence of hunger
Effortful control (self-regulation)
includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure - children high in this show an ability to keep arousal from getting too high & have strategies for soothing themselves
temperament
involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding - refers to individual differences in how quickly emotion is shown, how strong it is, how long it lasts, and how quickly it fades away
self-regulation
involves variations in extent/effectiveness of an individual's ability to control their emotions
emotional reactivity
involves variations in speed & intensity w/ which an individual responds to situations w/ positive/negative emotions
slow-to-warm-up child
low activity level, somewhat negative, displays a low intensity of mood
child care
many parents worry that child care will reduce infant's emotional attachment to them, harm infant's cognitive development, fail to teach anger control, and allow them to become unduly influenced by peers
transition to parenthood
people become parents through pregnancy, adoption, or stepparenting, they face disequilibrium & must adapt - parents want develop a strong attachment w/ infant, but they also want maintain strong attachments to their spouse & friends, and possibly continue their careers
social relationships
provide the setting for the development of a rich variety of emotions
child care
provided in large centers w/ elaborate facilities & in private homes - child-care centers are commercial operations; others are nonprofit centers run churches, civic groups, and employers - infants & toddlers are more likely to found child care & informal care settings, while older children are more likely to be child care centers & preschool & early education programs
insecure avoidant babies
show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver - babies engage in little interaction w/ caregiver, not distressed when she leaves room, usually don't reestablish contact upon return & if contact is established they usually lean/look away
Mary Ainsworth & John Bowlby
stress that it isn't possible to respond too much to infant crying in the first year of life - quick comforting response to infant's cries is an important ingredient in developing a strong bond between the infant & caregiver
Erik Erikson; independence
stressed that independence is an important issue in 2nd year of life - describes second stage of development as autonomy v. shamve - autonomy builds as infant's mental & motor abilities develop
contemporary view
temperament is a biologically based but evolving aspect of behavior - evolves as child's experiences are incorporated into a network of self-perceptions & behavioral preferences that characterize the child's personality
social referencing
term used to describe "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation - social referencing helps infants interpret ambiguous situation more accurately, as when they encounter a stranger & need to know whether fear the person - by end of 1st yr mother's facial expression influences whether infant will explore unfamiliar environment
personality
the enduring personal characteristics of individuals - emotions & temperament form key aspects of personality
difficult child
reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change
goodness of fit
refers to the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands with which the child must cope
Jerome Kagan
regards shyness with strangers as one feature of a broad temperament category called inhibition to the unfamiliar. - inhibited children react to unfamiliarity w/ initial avoidance, distress, or subdued affect, beginning at 7-9 months
family
thought of constellation of subsystems -- a complex whole made up interrelated, interacting parts-- defined in terms of generation, gender, and role - each member participates in several subsystems like father & child, mother & father, the mother-father-child
fear
typically appear at about 6 months and peaks at 18 months - abused & neglected infants show fear as early as 3 months - found that infant fear is linked to guilt, empathy, and low aggression at 6-7 years
securely attached babies
use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment - in presence of caregiver infant will explore room & examine toys, when caregiver departs they protest mildly, and when they return infants reestablish positive interaction w/ her
social orientation studies
- 18-24 months, children markedly increase their imitative & reciprocal play like imitating nonverbal actions such as jumping & running
third criticism of attachment theory
- ignores the diversity of socializing agents & contexts that exists in infant's world - culture's value system can influence the nature of attachment in some contexts & cultures infants show attachments to many people
Joseph Campos and Michael Lewis
- some researchers argue that jealousy doesn't emerge until approx. 15-18 months & others say it displays at around 9 months
phase 4 of attachment
-24 months and beyond -children become aware of others' feelings, goals, and plans and begin to take these into account in forming their own actions
locomotion in infants
-earlier in chapter growing importance of independence for infants, especially during second year of life - newly developed locomotion skills allow infant to independently initiate social interchanges on more frequent basis - development of gross motor skills results from factors such as development of nervous system, the goal the infant is motivated to reach, and environmental support for skill - once infants have ability to move in goal-directed pursuits, rewards from these pursuits lead to further efforts to explore & develop skills
independence in infants
-feel pride in new accomplishments - important for parents to recognize the motivation of toddlers to do what they are capable of doing at own pace - when caregivers are impatient & do what they can do themselves, shame & doubt develop
research on goodness of fit
-some temperament pose more parenting challenges than others - children are prone to distress, as exhibited by frequent crying & irritability, their parents may eventually respond by ignoring the child's distress/trying to force the child to behave - one study extra support & training for mothers of distress-prone infants improved the quality of mother-infant interaction - researchers also have found that decreases in infant's negative emotionality are linked to higher level of parental sensitivity, involvement, and responsiveness
management process
1) being proactive & childproofing the environment so infants won't encounter potentially dangerous objects/situations 2) engaging in corrective methods when infants engage in undesirable behaviors like excessive fussing & crying
phase 2 of attachment
2-7 months Focuses on one figure, usually primary caregiver
phase 3 of attachment
7-24 months specific attachments develop - w/ increased locomotor skills, babaies actively seek contact w/ regular caregivers
basic cry
A rhythmic pattern usually consisting of a cry, a briefer silence, a shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry, and then a brief rest before the next cry. - hunger is one of conditions that incites basic cry
reflexive smile
A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep.
Jacob Gewirtz
Found that a caregiver's quick, soothing response to crying increased crying
Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas
Identified three basic temperament types in infants: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up
negative affectivity
Includes fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort. - these children are easily distressed, may fret & cry often - mentioned above, preschool children w/ higher levels of negative affectivity were more likely to have tantrums were denied food
Variations in child care
US doesn't have policy of paid leave for new parents, child care in US has become major national concern - factors influence effects of child care, including age of child, type of child care, and quality of program - approx. 15% of children 5 yrs of age & younger attend more than one child arrangement
developmental cascade model
Van Ryzin, Carlson, and Sroufe involves connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes - developmental cascades can include connections between wide range of biological, cognitive, & socioemotional processes & can involve social context like families, peer, and culture
attachment
a close emotional bond between two people
smiling
a key social signal and a very important aspect of positive social interaction in developing a new social skill - researchers found that smiling & laughter at 7 months are associated w/ self-regulation at 7 yrs
social smile
a smile in response to an external stimulus, typically a face in the case of young infant - social smiling occurs as early as 2 months
gender
an important factor shaping the environmental context that influences temperament
stranger anxiety
an infant shows fear & wariness of strangers - usually emerges gradually, it appears at about 6 months in form of wary reactions - by age 9, the fear of strangers is often more intense, reaching peak toward end of first year of life - not all infants show distress when encountering a stranger; they show less stranger anxiety when in familiar settings
signs of self recognition
appear among infants when they are 15-18 months - by 2 years most children recognize themselves in the mirror -begin to develop self understanding at approx. 18 months
emotion regulation
appears in first yr of life, infant gradually develops ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity & duration of emotional reactions - infants mainly depend on caregivers to help soothe their emotions like rocking them to sleep
emotional development & coping w/ stress
are influenced by whether caregivers have maltreated/neglected children & whether children's caregivers are depressed or not
emotional expressions
are involved in infants' first relationships - ability of infants to communicate emotions permits coordinated interactions w/ their caregivers & beginning of emotional bond between them - interactions are described as reciprocal, or synchronous, when all is going well - responsive parents help their infants grow emotionally whether the infants respond in distressed/happy ways
Amanda Woodward
argue that infants' ability to understand & respond to others' meaningful intentions is critical cognitive foundation for effectively engaging in social world - emphasizes that an important aspect is ability is the capacity to grasp social knowledge quickly in order to make an appropriate social response
John Watson
argued that parents spend too much time responding to infant crying - parents reward crying & increase its incidence
emotions are influenced by
biological foundations, cognitive processes, and experiences -certain regions of brain that develop early in life(hippocampus, brain stem, amygdala) - infants only gradually develop ability to regulate emotions & this ability ties to gradual maturation of frontal regions of cerebral cortex
temperament may depend on culture
caregiver's reaction to infant's temperament may depend in part on culture - cultural differences in temperament were linked to parental attitudes & behaviors
maternal interactions
center on child care activities (feeding, changing diapers, bathing)
child's environment can affect persistence of temperament
child's environment can encourage/discourage persistence of temperament characteristics
poor child care
children more likely to experience it if they come from families w/ few resources - one study found extensive child care was harmful to low income children only when care was of low quality - high quality care involves providing children w/ safe environment, access to age appropriate toys & participation in activities, & low caregiver allows caregivers to spend considerable time w/ children on individual basis
classifications of Thomas or Rothbart
children shouldn't be pigeonholed as having only one temperament dimension such as "difficult" or "negative affectivity" - attempting to classify a child's temperament is to think of temperament as consisting of multiple dimensions - development of temperament capabilities such as effortful control allows individual differences to emerge
psychologists classify emotions as
classify broad range of emotions in many ways, but almost all classifications designate emotion as either positive/negative - positive includes joy, love - negative includes anxiety, guilt, sadness
Jerome Kagan
conclude that structural immaturity of infant brain makes it unlikely that emotions which require thought, like guilt, pride; can be experienced during first year
Strange Situation
created by Mary Ainsworth -observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order - researchers hope observations will provide info about infant's motivation to near caregiver & degree to which caregiver's presence provides infant w/ security & confidence - measure of attachment may be culturally biased
separation protest
crying when the caregiver leaves - initially displayed by infants approx. 7-8 months & peaks at 15 months among US infants - one study found separation protest peaked at 13-15 months
Freud
emphasized that infants become attached to person/object that provides oral satisfaction - Harry Harlow revealed in his study that the answer is no
research on role of hormones
emphasized the importance of neuropeptide hormone oxytocin & neurotransmitter dopamine in formation of maternal-infant bond - mammalian hormone that also acts as neurotransmitter in brain, released during breast feeding & by contact & warmth - research review indicated strong links between levels/patterns of maternal oxytocin & aspects of mother-infant attachment
epigenetic view on scaffolding
emphasizes that development is result of ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity & environment - likely reflects bidirectional influences rather than unidirectional parenting effect
Jay Belsky
emphasizes that marital relationship, parenting, and infant behavior & development can have both direct & indirect effect on each other - direct effect is influence parents' behavior on child; indirect effect is how relationship between spouses mediates way a parent acts toward child
paternal caregiving
estimated that 2 million in 2012 were stay at home dads - study revealed fathers were satisfied w/ their marriage but missed daily life in workplace - observations suggest that fathers have ability to act as sensitively & responsively as mothers w/ their infants
John Bowlby
ethological perspective - stresses the importance of attachment in 1st yr of life & responsiveness of caregiver - both infants & caregiver are biologically predisposed to form attachments - argues that newborn is biologically equipped to elicit attachment behavior
parental leave
far more young children are in child care at any other time in history; 2 million children in US currently receive formal, licensed child care, and uncounted millions of children are cared for by unlicensed babysitters - European Union(EU) madated a paid 14 week maternity leave in 1992 - most european countries today, working parents on leave receive from 70-100% of prior wawge, and paid leave averages about 16 weeks
emotion
feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is engaged in an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being - emotions influence infants' social responses & adaptive behavior they interact w/ others in their world
Erik Erikson
first year of life is characterized by the trust v. mistrust stage of development - proposed that infants learn trust when they are cared for in consistent, warm manner - if not fed & kept warm on consistent basis, sense of mistrust is likely to develop
easy child
generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences
quality of child care
high quality caregivers encourage children to be actively engaged in variety of activities, have frequent, positive interactions which includes smiling, respond properly to child's questions
paternal interactions
more likely to include play, engage in rough-and-tumble acts
parental benefits
most countries provide parental benefits only to women who have been employed for minimum time prior to childbirth - in Nordic countries(Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) have gender-equality family leave policies for childbirth that emphasize contributions of both women & men
crying
most important mechanism newborns have for communicating with their world - first cry verifies that baby's lungs have filled w/ air - cries also provide info about health of newborn's central nervous system - excessive crying in 3 month olds doubled risk of behavioral, hyperactive, and mood problems at 5-6 yrs
key candidates for influencing attachment
number of brain regions, neurotransmitters, and hormones are involved in development of infant-mother attachment - key candidates for influencing this attachment are connections between prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hypothalamus
cultural differences
occur in emotional experiences
joint attention
occurs when the caregiver and infant focus on the same object or event - occurs at 7-8 months, but at 10-11 months of joint attention intensifies & infants begin to follow caregiver's gaze - perceiving people as engaging in intentional & goal directed behavior is an important social cognitive accomplishment that initially occurs toward the end of first year
insecure resistant babies
often cling to the caregiver and then resist fighting against the closeness -often cling anxiously to caregiver & don't explore playroom, when caregiver leaves they cry loudly then push away when she tries to comfort them upon return
Jerome Kagan
points out that infants are highly resilient & adaptive; argues that evolutionarily equipped to stay on positive developmental course even in face of wide variations in parenting - assumption that infancy is critical/sensitive period for creating secure attachment w/ caregiver
scaffolding
practice in which parents time interactions so that infants experience turn taking with the parents - these interactions allow infants to be more skillfull than they would be if they relied only on their own abilities
primary emotions
present in humans and other animals; these emotions appear in first 6 months of human infant's development
Managing Infant's Behavior
sensitive parenting involves warmth & caring that can help babies become securely attached to parents, other important aspects of parenting infants involve managing & guiding their behavior in attempt to reduce/eliminate undesirable behaviors
study on managing infant behavior
study assessed results of disciplinary & corrective methods that parents had used by time infants were 12-24 months
studying development of self
studying sense of self in infancy is difficulty mainly because infants can't verbally express their thoughts & impressions
special concern of corrective discipline
to not become abusive, too often what starts out as mild intense discipline on part of parents can move into highly intense anger
Attention
toward or away from an experience can influence infants' emotional responses - children become older they develop cognitive strategies for controlling emotions & become more adept at modulating their emotional arousal
anger cry
variation of basic cry in which more excess air is forced through vocal cord
bringing home baby project
workshop that helps new parents strengthen their relationship, understand & become acquainted w/ their baby, resolve conflict, and develop parenting skills - project revealed participants improved their ability to work together as parents; fathers became more involved w/ their baby, mothers had lower incidence of postpartum depression
social orientation in infants
young infants stare intently at faces & attuned to sounds of human voices, especially the voice of caregivers - face to face play often begins to characterize caregiver infant interactions when infant is about 2-3 months - 2-3 months infants respond in different ways to people & objects showing more positive emotion to people than inanimate objects
