CH 8: Families [Part 3], CH 8: Families [Part 2], CH 8: Families [Part 1], CH 7: Moral Development [Part 3], CH 7: Moral Development [Part 2], CH 7: Moral Development [Part 1], CH 6: Sexuality [Part 3], CH 6: Sexuality [Part 2], CH 6: Sexuality [Part...
Peers & Gender Socialization
from early childhood on, most friends are the same-sex as the individual friends model gender norms, provide feedback, and may enforce sanctions for gender non-conforming behavior
Differences in Communication in Relationships with Others
gender differences in play, communication, and self-disclosure [but when relationships are equated for closeness, fewer differences appear]
Generally the relationships between parents and EAs improve when...
they leave home [EA will grow closer psychologically and share more with them than they did before; less conflict in the home]
Application of Social Role Theory: As women adapted to roles with less power and less status in society...
they showed more cooperative, less dominant profiles than men
Cognitive Autonomy
thinking for oneself, thinking independent of parents
Kohlberg claimed his stages of MD are universal
this is not necessarily true; stages 1 & 2 appear in most cultures, stage 3 not as much; fails to capture some important moral concepts in some cultures
Virginity Pledges & Contraception
those who take a virginity pledge are less likely to use contraception (mainly b/c impulse + they won't have any contraception with them) Why won't they have contraception with them? -Having contraception means admitting the possibility that you will have sex -Not having it though means they won't have anything with them when they have sex
Moral Personality is comprised of
thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and a commitment to virtues
Transgender & Hormonal Treatments
to enhance the physical characteristics of the gender with which they identify some just do this rather than reassignment surgery; can do both though
What is the goal of gender-role transcendence?
to treat each person as an individual rather than as a member of a gender
some gender identities are...
transgender, genderqueer, gender-nonconforming, and cisgender
Sexual minority youth who are rejected by their parents experience...
trauma and other negative factors
True or False: Overall, latino adolescents participate in religious activities more often than their peers
true
True or False: a study with latino, AA, asain, and nonlatino white adols showed that religious identity remained *stable* but religious *participation* dropped during adol
true
True or False: mothers tend to be a greater religious influence than fathers
true
True or false: culture contributes to the roles family plays in MD
true
Notably, even if their relationship with the baby's mother is rocky, *most* teen fathers...
try to be supportive of their children
Women have ___ the body fat of men; while, on average, men grow to be ____ and have _____
twice taller greater physical strength
Even though the average males' visuospatial skills are higher than those of the average female, scores for the two sexes....
almost entirely overlap
In the 1970s, many M & F dissatisfied with the burdens imposed y their stereotyped rules and looked for...
alternatives to "masculinity" and "femininity"
define Sympathy
an "other-oriented" emotional response involving the recognition of the other's emotion (often *motivates prosocial behavior*)
define Religion
an *organized set of beliefs*, practices, rituals, and symbols that increases an individual's connection to a sacred or transcendent other
Who is more likely to terminate an unwanted pregnancy? How common is an unwanted pregnancy for a person like that?
an Ambitious, well-educated, middle/upper class girl who lives in a wealthier area Generally, unintended pregnancies for these girls is lower (but their sexual activity level is *not* necessarily lower)
regular attendance at religious services is associated with delayed sexual activity *if*...
an adol's friends share religious involvement (why? b/c cohesion of the friend group; shared beliefs and values transfer to shared behaviors)
Gender is one of the most important aspects of...
an adolescent's identity & social relationships
When individuals lack moral character, they may
-wilt under pressure or fatigue -fail to follow through with commitments -become distracted & discouraged -fail to behave morally
Are virginity pledges effective on anyone? What are two additional contexts in which virginity pledges are ineffective?
-work for younger adolescents -*no effect* on high school students (mid/late-adols) -And many people are *likely to forget* that they took the pledge -in schools where *very few* students take virginity pledges -in schools where *nearly everyone* pledges
"Reviving Ophelia" (Pipher 1994) & "Real Boys" (Pollack 1999)
-written by clinicians, based on their therapeutic experiences with adolescents -stress the unstable sense of self (particularly of adols in therapy) -make generalizations about adols based on SMALL CLINICAL SAMPLES (v. specific population)
Only 20% to 25% of adolescents and parents have... This is associated with...
...a high degree of conflict (that is, prolonged, intense, repeated, and unhealthy conflict) ...reactive, controlling parenting
For a long time, socialization between parents and children/adols was seen as... This meant that children and adols were...
...a one-way process ...the product of their parent's socialization techniques
Well-functioning families, regardless of their structure, are characterized by...
...communication and clarification of affection, concern, standards, monitoring, enforcing standards, organized environments, predictable routines, and allowance for autonomy while maintaining connection FAMILIES ARE INCREDIBLY IMPORTANT TO CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Siblings can serves as... Sibling relationships can be...
...competitors, rivals, models, and friends ...supportive, important socializing influences or significant risk factors
Negative Sibling Conflict + Poor/Ineffective parenting is linked with... This can also result from...
...negative outcomes ...modeling poor/risky/delinquent behavior of an older sibling
Custodial fathers experience the loss of about ____ of their predivorce income
0 to 10%
Mollborn described four communities based on religion and SES 1. low religion, low SES 2. low religion, high SES 3. high religion, low SES 4. high religion high SES
1. "It could be you" 2. "Be careful" 3. "It's wrong, but..." 4. "It's wrong."
The norms communicated by parents to teens are often ___ and ___. They support these norms with the ____ and _____ justifications.
1. *Don't have sex* 2. Don't get (anyone) pregnant *Practical* Justifications: think about your future! respect yourself! don't abandon your ambitions! focus on your studies! *Moral* Justifications: sex outside of marriage is wrong! abortion is wrong! Parents may not always use both justification styles
What are *Piaget's* three stages of MD? Describe Each!
1. *Pre-Moral* Stage, 1-4yo *no understanding of morals*; no awareness of rules, moral principles, or ideas of justice 2. *Heteronomous* Stage, 4-10yo *morality of constraint*; rules are unchanging, judgements based on consequences rather than intentions, no sense of proportionate punishment 3. *Autonomous* Stage, 11+yo *rules are social constructs*; intentions matter, punishment should be proportionate to the scale of the misdeed, rules are changeable with consensus
What are *Kohlberg's* three stages of MD? Describe Each!
1. *Pre-conventional Reasoning*, <9yo moral thinking is often tied to punishment or the consequences for the self 2. *Conventional Reasoning*, late child / early adol individs abide by certain (internal) standards that are actually just the standards of others (external) [e.g., the standards of parents or the laws of society] 3. *Postconventional Reasoning*, *relatively rare* morality is more internal; the individ recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then decides on a personal moral code and appeals to transcendent values
Two Parental Goals identified by Mollborn
1. Communicating and enforcing messages about how teens are supposed to behave sexually 2. Ensuring that their teen has a bright future
Which of the following demonstrate adolescent emotional autonomy? (Select all that apply) 1. De-idealizing parents 2. Financial Independence 3. Perceiving their parents as people 4. Becoming less dependent on parents for emotional support
1. De-idealizing parents 3. Perceiving their parents as people 4. Becoming less dependent on parents for emotional support
1. Girls tend to have a ____ attitude towards school. 2. Boys tend to have a ____ attitude towards school. These attitudes are linked to...
1. Girls tend to have a *positive* attitude towards school, *which is linked to higher grades* 2. Boys tend to have a *negative* attitude towards school, *which is linked to lower grades*
*Question 1* The 5 Basic Questions concerning Adolescent Moral Development
1. How to adols reason, or think, about rules for ethical conduct?
Teen pregnancy rates are highest amongst...
1. Latina 2. AA
Two contributing factors to the decision to abort or not abort a (teen) pregnancy
1. SES 2. Religion
Which of the following characterize the children typically adopted by US couples in the 21st century? (select all that apply) 1. a different nationality than parents 2. low rates of physical or mental problems 3. a different ethnicity than the parents 4. low rates of exposure to neglect or abuse
1. a different nationality than parents 3. a different ethnicity than the parents
The recent large drop in teen pregnancies may be a result of...
1. adol girls' increased use of LARC 2. there being more education options for girls, allowing them to be more "future-oriented" and see a benefit in ensuring education by delaying pregnancy (if not delaying sexual activity as a whole)
Gender-Role Classification, based on the BSRI: 1. high masc, high fem 2. high masc, low fem 3. low masc, high fem 4. low masc, low fem
1. androgynous 2. masculine 3. feminine 4. undifferentiated
Adolescent peer groups are more likely to: (*select all that apply*) 1. be a mix of boys and girls compared to childhood peer groups 2. spend nearly 95% of the time "hanging" w/ peers of the opposite sex 3. spend about 75% of the time "hanging" w/ peers of the same gender as themselves 4. spend nearly 95% of the time "hanging" w/ peers of the same gender as themselves
1. be a mix of boys and girls compared to childhood peer groups 3. spend about 75% of the time "hanging" w/ peers of the same gender as themselves
1. By mid/late childhood, there is a clear preference for... 2. Peer approval is a...
1. being with and liking same-sex peers 2. strong influence on gender attitudes and gender behavior for girls
Factors indicating bias against girls in the classroom setting include: (*select all that apply*) 1. boys tend to get more instruction than girls and more help when needed 2. teachers give girls more time to answer a question and more tries to get the correct answer 3. teachers spend more time interacting with girls 4. girls tend to be more compliant and quiet than boys
1. boys tend to get more instruction than girls and more help when needed 4. girls tend to be more compliant and quiet than boys
1. Many of the mother's interactions with adolescents center on... 2. Many of the father's interactions with adolescents center on...
1. caregiving & teaching activities 2. leisure activities
Moral development involves changes in.... Moral development has both an ____ dimension and an ____ dimension
1. changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong 2. intrapersonal; interpersonal
4 Factors that that increase or decrease the risk to the adolescent in a divorced family
1. degree and intensity of conflict before, during, and after divorce 2. degree and quality of continuing contact between both parents 3. relocation 4. family financial status
About ___% of boys and ____% of girls report having had same-sex attraction, a non-heterosexual orientation, or engaging in same-sex sexual activity during adolescence
About *6% of boys* and *13% of girls*
Abstinence-only sex ed programs v. comprehensive sex ed
Abstinence-only programs are *entirely unsuccessful* Comprehensive sex ed is *needed*
Date Rape can also be referred to as
Acquaintance Rape
AIDs — what precedes it, what does it do?
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) Interferes with the body's immune system
When does teen pregnancy peak?
After HS (18, 19 yo)
Erikson's View of MD
Another *psychoanalytic theory* -Specific moral learning in childhood -Ideological concerns in adolescence -Ethical consolidation in adulthood
(Behaviorist) John Watson's view of Effective Parenting
Don't be too affectionate (shake their hands before bed and never give them more than a quick kiss on the forehead; believed that a mother's love was poisonous and would corrupt the child)
What is the best description of how experts view the gender differences in mathematics?
Experts disagree about whether gender roles predict math skills
In a study, F adols reported more... M adols reported more...
F: emotional, dire, compliant, and altruistic behavior M: engagement in public, prosocial behavior *SEE POWERPOINT SLIDE #25 FOR MORE IMPORTANT INFO
True or False: Hormonal changes in puberty increases the likelihood of behaviors such as affection, charm, and assertiveness,
FALSE
In traditional cultures, fathers often have a more ____ style and mothers have a more ____ style
Father: authoritarian Mother: permissive, indulgent
The contemporary perspective on moral feeling
both positive and negative feelings contribute to adolescents' MD -empathy, sympathy, admiration, SE -anger, outrage, shame, guilt
Social Cognitive Theory of Gender
children's and adolescents' gender development is influenced by: 1. their *observation and imitation* of others' gendered behavior 2. the *rewards and punishments* they experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior
Social Cognitive Theory of MD
emphasizes the difference between adolescent's *moral competence* and *moral performance* Argues that self-regulation is more important than moral reasoning and cognitive development
Mollborn's recommendations to parents
end conspiracies of silence and climates of fear -be open, honest, and frank -don't let adols be fearful of sex or fearful of discussing sex
Hostile Environment Sexual Harassment
environ in which students are subjected to severe, persistent, or pervasive and unwelcome sexual conduct — thus limiting their ability to benefit from their education
Some experts in gender, like Janet Shibley Hyde, conclude that the cognitive difference btwn M and F have been ____.
exaggerated
Sex-Role Behavior
extent to which an individual behaves in traditionally masculine or feminine ways
Sexual Orienation
extent to which an individual is oriented toward heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual activity
Recent Research suggests that girls and boys who engage in ____ gender-typed behaviors had lower levels of school engagement and school attachment
extreme
Which is a greater risk factor for pregnancy: long-term romantic relationships or short-term hook-ups?
long-term romantic relationships
Those engage in early, risky sexual behavior often have _____ levels of parental monitoring. When is the most common time for adols to have sex?
low in the afternoon in someone's home (AKA, when their behavior is not being monitored)
Parents' religiosity is linked to ______ levels of risky sexual behavior amongst adolescents, partly bc...
lower -bc adols hanging out with peers who are less sexually permissive
Seh shaming more often targets ____
lower SES girls who become pregnant
Parental media monitoring (in the form of active monitoring and connective co-use) is linked to...
lower media use by adolescents
Items that fall into the moral domain:
lying, stealing, deliberate harm to others, deliberate destruction of another person's property, cheating
Eisenberg & Altruism
many prosocial acts involve altruism (an unselfish interest in helping another person) altruism is preceded by the experience of empathetic caring & good emotional regulation
Which is better: many small talks about sexuality (including discussions about relationships) or one big talk?
many small talks (Also best to start long before sexual activity may potentially begin)
The prob with HPV and teens
many teens are *not* vaccinated for HPV! Why? Parents don't want to admit the possibility of teens being sexually active (thus not vaccinating them and leaving them at risK!)
Some parental changes that may influence parent-adol relationships:
marital satisfaction, economic burdens, career reevaluation, time constraints, health/body concerns
Why may boys exaggerate sexual experience and why may girls understate it?
may be giving socially desirable answers
Media influences vary by...
media
Loosely define the domain of social conventions
norms; what is considered proper by a society or culture
Are children and adols with same sex parents different from their peers with heterosexual parents?
not really! as long as the family functions well, all is well -no less popular than peers -no more likely to be gay (no diff in sexual orientation) -may be *more open-minded*
Adolescent independence: is it rebellion???
not usually; most of the time it's just adols trying to navigate the world on their own — it's not defiant, it's normal
insecure attachment is linked to higher levels of ___ in adults
social anxiety
The _______ approach argues that children's and adolescent's gender development occurs through observation, imitation, rewards, and punishments.
social cognitive
The most common peer sanction against violators of injunctive norms
social exclusion (shun the girl that got pregnant and the boy who got her pregnant; shun the girls with multiple partners)
Emotional, dire, and compliant prosociality are related to
parental monitoring
Reciprocal Socialization
parents influence children and children's responses influence parents (and parenting) i.e., process by which children and adols socialize their parents, just as their parents socialize them There is a positive feedback loop in this!
Risky sexual activity is associated with problematic outcomes, beyond just pregnancy, such as... However, many of these problems begin _____.
patterns of drug and alcohol use academic disengagement compromised developmental outcomes begin *before* early sexual debut
Piaget anf Kohlberg both emphasize the importance of _____ in MD. To Kohlberg, it may be even more important than interaction with parents and teachers.
peer interaction
Research has found that more advanced moral reasoning takes places when... Margaret Ingate explained in class that this may be because...
peers engage in challenging (and even moderately conflicting) conversation they establish rules democratically (more give & take discussion and practice perspective-taking in peer interaction)
Early sexual intercourse is linked to...
problematic situations and greater risk-taking behaviors later in life
Forgiveness
prosocial behavior that occurs when an injured person releases the injurer from retaliation peer pressure may influence forgiveness
Parents as GateKeepers for children/adol
provide opportunities and limits on contacts with family, friends, peers, adults who may be valuable resources (social capital) monitor school performance, hw, and after-school activity; allow opportunities and establish limits as needed
Neglectful parenting is linked to
socially incompetent behavior, lack of self-control, inability to handle independence well, high focus on peer acceptance (considered to result in the worst outcomes)
Albert Bandura on the Social Cognitive Theory of MD
self-regulation, rather than abstract reasoning, is the key to positive MD MD is best understood as a combo of social and cognitive factors, particularly self-regulation
Adols whose parents are authoritative are usually
self-reliant and socially responsible
define Gender Role
set of expectations that prescribes how M & F should think, act, and feel
Adolescents who use sexually explicit websites are more likely to be _____, to have had ______ in the last 3 months, to have ______ at their last sexual encounter, and to engage in ______.
sexually permissive more than one sexual partner used alcohol/drugs anal sex
Factors associated with risky sexual behavior are ____ to those associated with risk taking in general. Such as?
similar -poor parenting; poor monitoring -disengagement from academic goals -viewing risk taking peers positively -associating with risk-taking peers
According to behaviorists, moral behavior is... (EXPLAIN)
situationally dependent -model organisms learn the signals that indicate when reinforcement or punishment are available -ppl are more likely to cheat when the context promotes it (e.g., when peers are cheating, easy to chat, low chance of being caught) -there may be some consistency to moral behavior though (e.g., some may be more likely to cheat than others)
Recent research conclude that gender differences in adolescence are quite ____
small
Communication, aggression, and prosocial behavior are areas in with there are _____ similarities and differences btwn the genders
socioemotional
Transgender & Reassignment Surgery
some seek it, but many do not more likely to get top surgery than genital surgery
Sexual Script
stereotyped patten of role prescriptions for how individuals should behave sexually **By adolescence, boys and girls have been socialized to follow different sexual scripts
Males are more likely to show anger toward ______, when they think they have been challenged
strangers (particularly other males)
What does punishment actually teach a child or adol? Is it an effective method for teaching Moral Behavior?
teaches how *not to get caught* rather than moral behavior; an *ineffective* teaching method!
Describe Bruggman & Hart's (2010) study on cheating/lying on a test and moral reasoning level
*Design*: -subjects: HS students who attended either a parochial (religious) school or a secular (public) school -Used the *Defining Issues Test* to measure moral reasoning level [DIT designed to test Kohlberg's Theory] *Results*: -no difference in moral reasoning level -groups had similar level of cheating and lying (70% of religious school students, 79% of public school students) -*level of moral reasoning was not correlated with moral behavior*
The majority of adolescents...
-have healthy sexual attitudes -experience positive emotions related to sexuality -engage in sexual behaviors that will not compromise their journey to adulthood
-In terms of sexual activity, _____ is an especially important influence for boys -Testosterone surge sparks initial interest in sex for ____
-hormones -both boys and girls (though F are also influenced by estrogens)
Criticisms of Evolutionary Psychology
-hypotheses are backed by speculation, not evidence -people are not locked into behavior that was adaptive in the evolutionary past -ev psych pays little attention to cultural and individual variations in gender difference
Ainsworth AAI: *Disorganized Attachment*
*Disorganized Attachment* -parent neglect/abuses child but the parent is the only figure the child has to look up to and attach to (*idolize and fear the parent*) -adol has unusually high level of fear and might be disoriented -may result from other traumatic experiences (like parent's death)
Because boys usually show less self-regulation of behaviors and emotions than girls, boys are more likely to:
-have diagnoses of ADHD -repeat a grade *Low self-control can translate into behavior problems*
adoption trends before the 60s
-white, wealthier parents -mostly adoptions from teen pregnancies -white, healthy babies
______ (as an influence on sexual activity) is especially important for girls. Important predictors of girls' involvement in sexual intercourse are _______ and _____, partially b/c peers ______ behavior.
*Context* (as an influence on sexual activity) is especially important for girls. Important predictors of girls' involvement in sexual intercourse are *the behavior of their friends* and *their sexually permissive and restrictive attitudes*, partially b/c peers *emulate/immitate* behavior.
Describe the views of Freud & Erikson on gender
"Anatomy is destiny" (an individual's genitals influence his or her gender behavior) Freud: gender and sexual behaviors are unlearned and instinctual Erikson: males are more intrusive; females are more passive and receptive
Toxic Masculinity
"Defensive Masculinity" misogynistic, violent, emotionally repressed, homophobic, sexually dominant *Hotly debated whether this is a clinical phenomenon; argue over its nature: is it performative? maybe a bit, but there are definitely biological aspects to it
G. Stanley Hall's view of Effective Parenting
"hardening" adolescents (physically challenging, outdoor tasks to strengthen male adolescents)
Ainsworth AAI: *Ambivalent/Preoccupied Attachment*
*Ambivalent/Preoccupied Attachment* -adols are hyper-attuned to attachment exps.; constantly seeking approval and attachment (mixed with some anger) -due to parents being inconsistently available -the resulting parent-adol conflicts can be very unhealthy for development
Four Styles of Parenting Identified by Baumrind & Explanations
*Authoritarian Parenting*: restrictive, punitive; one way communication; emphasis on parental power; low warmth; follow directions and respect work *Authoritative Parenting*: place limits and controls on adols' actions BUT engage in reciprocal dialogue about the rationale for their rules; high warmth and acceptance; encourage a level of independence *Neglectful Parenting*: very uninvolved in the adolescent's life; no standards are set; low warmth *Indulgent Parenting*: high warmth and acceptance; few demands or controls on adolescents; few consequences for their behavior
Ainsworth AAI: *Avoidant/Dismissing Attachment*
*Avoidant/Dismissing Attachment* -de-emphasize the importance of attachment -associated with consistent exps. of rejection of attachment needs by caregiver (*poor, unloving, neglectful parenting*) -parents and adols may mutually distance themselves (lessening parental influence)
Gender Schema Theory
*Cognitive Approach* Gender-typing emerges as children and adols actively construct gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture—choosing what to attend to and what to incorporate in their schemas (This is a more conscious, involved process!) Gender schema organizes the world in terms of males and females
What makes up the super ego?
*Ego Ideal*: the component that involves standards approved by parents [rewards the individual by conveying pride and personal value when they act accordingly to moral standards] *Conscience*: the component that involves behaviors *not* approved of by parents [punishes individual for acting immorally by making them feel guilty and worthless; this enables *self-control to eventually replace parental control*]
Integrative Ethical Education: *Ethical Action*
*Ethical Action* (MOST IMPORTANT ONE) -resolving conflicts and problems -asserting respectfully -taking initiative as a leader -implementing moral decisions -cultivating courage; standing up for what is right -persevering
Integrative Ethical Education: *Ethical Focus*
*Ethical Focus* -respecting others & cultivating conscience -acting responsibly -helping others -finding meaning in life -valuing traditions and institutions -developing ethical identity and integrity
Integrative Ethical Education: *Ethical Judgement*
*Ethical Judgement* -understand ethical problems -use codes; identify judgment criteria -reasoning generally and ethically -understanding the consequences -reflecting on the process and outcome -coping and being resilient
Integrative Ethical Education: *Ethical Sensitivity*
*Ethical Sensitivity* -understand emotional expression; perspective-taking -connecting with others -responding to diversity -controlling social bias -interpreting situations -communicating effectively
True or False: Individuals who engage in sexual activity during adolescence (16yo or older) but avoid risky behavior experience psychological disturbance, academic difficulties, and/or legal difficulties
*False*, See Corrected Statement: Individuals who engage in sexual activity during adolescence (16yo or older) but avoid risky behavior *typically do not* experience psychological disturbance, academic difficulties, and/or legal difficulties
True or False: Sexual activity during adolescence (16yo or older) is associated with psychological disturbance.
*False*, See Corrected Statement: Sexual activity during adolescence (16yo or older) is *not* associated with psychological disturbance. In fact, the levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction are similar to that of other, non-sexually active adols
True or False: A large percentage of US parents want schools to provide abstinence-only education
*False*, see corrected answer: A large percentage of US parents want schools to provide *comprehensive* education
True or False: Sexual Orientation, Sex-Role Behavior, & Gender Identity are all the same concept
*False*, see corrected statement: Sexual Orientation, Sex-Role Behavior, & Gender Identity are *independent concepts*
True or False: it is more likely for a girl to be raped or sexually assaulted by someone they do not know
*False*, see corrected statement: it is more likely for a girl to be raped or sexually assaulted *by someone they already know*
True or False: "Traditional" or "Tiger" Parenting in Asian and AA families is associated with negative outcomes. WHY?
*False*, see corrected: "Traditional" or "Tiger" Parenting in Asian and AA families is *not* associated with negative outcomes. No neg outcomes if the child recognizes it is b/c their parents care about them and love them and want to make them better people
True or False: All college freshman are prepared to adapt to college life
*False*, see corrected: *Many freshmen* are *ill-prepared* The more psychologically dependent one is on their parents, the poorer their personal/social adjustment will be
True or False: Children born to adolescent mothers perform just as well on IQ Tests and are no more likely to have behavioral problems than children born to mothers in their 20s
*False*, see corrected: Children born to adolescent mothers perform *worse* IQ Tests and are *more likely* to have behavioral problems than children born to mothers in their 20s
True or False: Moral emotions are sufficient to generate moral responsibility
*False*, see corrected: Moral emotions are *not* sufficient to generate moral responsibility *because moral emotions do not drive moral regulation and do not operate in a vacuum to build adols' moral awareness* Moral emotions do not give the "substance" of moral regulation—the rules, values, or standards of behavior that adols need to understand and act on
2 critical ways in which schools are important contexts for MD
*Hidden Curriculum*: the pervasive moral atmosphere that characterizes every school; created by the school, classroom rules, moral orientation of teachers and admin, and text materials; no specific program for morality *Character Education*: involved teaching students a basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves and others (40/50 states have *mandates* regarding character education!); *moral vocab translates into moral behavior*
Parenting (Discipline) Techniques & MD
*Love Withdraw*: a parent withholds attention or love from the adolescent; a *psychological* control over adolescents *Power Assertion*: a parent attempts to gain control over the adolescent or the adolescent's resources; a *psychological* control over adolescents *Induction*: a parent uses reason and explains how antisocial activities are likely to affect others (but requires early, strong, and pos parent-child relation); a *behavioral* control over adolescents
The effectiveness of Parent-Adolescent communication about sex
*May stop* teens from engaging in *risky* sexual behaviors, but it *does little to prevent* them from being sexually active in general
Describe the Gender Differences in: - Intellectual Ability - Cognitive Areas
*No gender differences* in overall intellectual ability *Gender differences* in *some* cognitive areas
Favoritism of one child over another by parents is (rare/not rare). Being the "not-favorite" child is linked with...
*Not Rare* ...lower SE and sadness
When are peer influences on sexual behavior at their strongest? How so?
*Peer* influences on sexual behavior are *strongest* when *parental* influence is *weak* -having sexually active peers establishes a normative standard that having sex is okay -peers communicate directly about sex (with friends or with potential partners; may overestimate, lie, etc. though) -risk factors* for sexual activity are cumulative
Describe gender from the perspective of evolutionary psychology
*Sorry Dean, I'm not gonna really write much of the specific/important details for this one b/c I studied it for a whole semester* Parental Investment Theory & subsequent differences in mating strategy -M & F faced different pressures in primeval environments when the human species was evolving -differences in parental investment explain typical gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors
Describe the stages of sexual activity
*Stage One* Autoerotic Behavior (sexual behavior that is experienced alone — erotic fantasies, masturbation, etc.) *Stage Two* By high school, adols may transition to sexual activity involving another person (but most of this activity is not intercourse) *Stage Three* And it develops on from there -Progression of behaviors is very similar, though time courses may be prolonged or compressed depending on the individual
Describe the following: -brave exemplar -caring exemplar -just exemplar
*brave exemplar*: dominant, extraverted *caring exemplar*: nurturant, agreeable *just exemplar*: conscientious, open to experience
define Spirituality
*experiencing something beyond oneself* in a transcendent manner and *living in a way that benefits others and society*; experiential, the experience of the awareness of the transcendence
Changes in US / Eastern Europe Family Life: Divorce
*high divorce rate* -most children will have adjustment probs (25% children and 20% EA have emotional probs) -important factors in impact on the child: child's age, intensity of the conflict before, during, and after -many negative outcomes (yk the drill)
Changes in US / Eastern Europe Family Life: Births
*inc in births to unmarried mothers* -NOT teen preg -19+yo (40% not married; coinhabitants!)
traditional gender norms are ____. Explain.
*not* unidimensional norms/expectations for education and adult professional roles available to women may not be considered "traditional" but norms for sexuality, marriage, and motherhood may be very traditional
Adolescent sexuality is influenced by...
*puberty* (changes the nature and meaning of sexual behavior), *emerging cognitive capabilities* (introspection & reflection about sexual behavior), and *concerns about new social roles* (may delay sexual activity until they feel they have some control over their lives/goals)
sandwich, pivot, and which is more common in the US
*sandwich generation*: middle generation cares for both grown children and aging parents simultaneously *pivot generation*: middle generation alternates attention btwn the demands of grown children and aging parents; *more common in US*
Hazan & Shaver: *secure attachment*
*secure attachment* -predicts more positive romantic relationships -SA adults have more positive view of relationships, find it way to get close to others, and are no stressed about romantic relationships -SA adults tend to enjoy sexuality in context of a committed relationship (one-night stand is unlikely)
Mass media's messages about gender roles are important influences on ____ adolescents' gender development
*some*
How does household composition predict adol sexual involvement? Give examples.
- Adols whose parents are divorcing/divorced are more likely to be sexually active earlier than their peers - Girls who live in a single-parent household are more likely to be sexually active earlier than their peers *These are true regardless of when or if a divorce took place
How may media influence adolescent's gender development and perception of gender?
- Many shows (directed at adols) present stereotyped gender roles - The portrayal of women (and teenage girls) is especially strongly stereotyped - Media portrayals of women include models of courage, strength, and competence — but there are many more of such models of men - Music Videos (men are fully-dressed; women are *not* fully-dressed & overly sexual) [*this is especially problem if adols cannot differentiate btwn media/fantasy and real life*]
Misperceptions btwn parents and adols about sexuality
- Parents report having had conversations about sexuality, whereas teens report that their parents have not talked to them - Parents underestimate teens sexual activity and overestimate how much their disapproval will deter/prevent sexual activity - Sexually active adols underestimate parental disapproval
Why is adjustment to step parents difficult for most (early) adols? What happens over the LT?
- boundary ambiguity — who is w/in and who is outside of the family; who is performing or responsible for carrying out certain tasks in the family - esp. when stepparent tries to be the disciplinarian - early adols have less means/opportunities to get away from home LT: usually, the relationships improve
Behaviors that may not be socially approved but validate the adolescent boy's masculinity
- casual, recreational sex - forced sex with an unwilling partner - alcohol and drugs - illegal delinquent activities
There is likely lower teen preg rates in other industrialized countries because:
- childbearing is regarded as an activity for adults - clear messages about effective contraception & have very early comprehensive sex education - access to family planning services
Studies show that sex education programs that emphasize contraceptive knowledge.... (*2 items*)
- do not increase the incidence of sexual intercourse - are more likely to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy and STIs than abstinence-only programs
The differences in M and F brain structure are related to:
- emotional differences (e.g., experience of emotion and the expression of anger) - memory differences (e.g., F have stronger episodic memory) - behavioral differences (e.g., physical aggression)
In general, effective sex education programs have these components:
- information about contraception, STDs, and pregnancy - teach adols how to refuse unwanted sex and avoid unintended sex - increase adols' motivation to engage in safe sex - change perceptions about about peer norms and attitudes
There are sex differences in the meaning of sex (especially with first sexual experiences). *Girls are more likely to:*
- integrate sexual activity into an existing capacity for intimacy and emotional involvement - take the view that sex is combined with romance, love, friendship, and intimacy - feel conflicted by societal pressures and worries about pregnancy
There are sex differences in the meaning of sex (especially with first sexual experiences). *Boys are more likely to:*
- keep matters of sex and intimacy separate - have experienced orgasm through masturbation - interpret sex as *recreation* rather than intimacy
Compared to adults with AIDS, adols with AIDS are...
- more likely to be asymptomatic - more likely to acquire it through heterosexual transmission - less likely to take preventative precautions
Describe Comprehensive Sex Ed & what is entails
- reproductive biology - how sexuality can enrich intimate relationships - stresses caused by sexuality in a relationship - demands of maintaining intimate relationships - communication of desires and consent - support the educational goals of males and females
When looking at the difference between the sexes, it is important to keep in mind that:
- the differences are average and do not apply to all F or to all M - there is often considerable overlap between M and F when gender differences occur, particularly in cognitive and socioemotional development - the differences may be due to biological factors, sociocultural factors, or both
20% of female, sexually active adolescents believed that they never had the right...
- to make decisions about contraception - to tell their partner that they don't want to have intercourse without birth control - to tell their partner to stop
What are the criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of MD?
- too much emphasis on *moral thought* and not enough on *moral behavior* - moral reasons can always be a shelter for immoral behavior (i.e., do not align and use moral thought as a means to justify/defend; ppl can reason at the postconventional level, disengage from self-blame, and act immorally) - Kohlberg's studies mainly used middle class, white males
The experience of abuse is linked to...
- truancy - depression - suicide - substance abuse - running away from home - school difficulties
Some Examples of Multiple Developmental Trajectories: -Age when having children -Spacing of children
-Ages at which individuals have children will affect their parenting attitudes, resources, and behaviors [i.e., very young parents, young parents, and older parents all face different, unique circumstances] -Spacing of children, relation of children's ages to parents' ages influence these trajectories & how the trajectories interact
Gender Differences in Self-Regulation / Emotional-Regulation
-F express more emotion, are better at decoding emotions, smile more, cry more, and are generally happier -M experience and express more anger; show less self-regulation of behavior and emotions
Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior
-F view themselves as more prosocial and empathetic -F demonstrate more prosocial behavior and show more empathy than boys do -M more likely to see themselves as strong and more likely to take action in the face of danger -F more likely to be involved in volunteering and planning
What's the situation with parents' different achievement expectations for their sons and daughters
-Far more likely for parents who are not college educated -More likely in some subgroups than others (e.g., more likely in subgroups that prefer traditional gender roles) -Overall, the situation is getting better (less and less people are holding a narrow view of gender roles) *IMPORTANT:* Fathers may see a difference in role opportunities for their daughters nowadays, particularly ever since girls started going to college and into the workforce -Fathers may be more supportive of such endeavors of their daughters -Fathers now, whose mothers had at least a part-time job and/or education, may have experienced the normalization of such
Mollborn (2017) — Demographics & Survey Results
-Interviewed 57 college students & 77 teen parents (avg. age 20) -most from Colorado & Idaho -94% White, 100% Christian -92% Heterosexual Clearly, not a great sample Among College Students: -40% no intercourse in HS -40% always use contraception -20% did not always use contraception -4% reported aborted teen preg -expressed that their parents *expected abstinence*
Should we teach androgyny in schools?
-Mixed Feelings -androgyny program advocates claim that traditional sex-typing is harmful for all students and has prevented many girls from experiencing equal opportunity -may be better to be exposed to androgyny & non-traditional gender roles via family; don't need the explicit lessons to learn it
How do parents provide influential templates for gender development?
-Parents *may* allow boys more independence than girls -Parents may have different achievement expectations for sons and daughters** **SEE NEXT FLASHCARD!
Possible conflict community norms
-Sanctions against pregnancy and sanctions against abortion -"Don't have sex but make sure to use contraception" -Disapprove of teen parents (bc they were irresponsible), but help them to avoid more negative outcomes
Various aspects of religion (e.g., religious involvements) is linked to positive outcomes for adols. What are some stats?
-There is a relationship btwn Youth who generally think positively of spirituality and the 5 C's of Positive Youth Development -higher levels of church engagement is linked to higher grades for M adols -Religion is related to adol health (more relig negatively related to depression) and whether they engage in problem behaviors -religious youth almost 3x more likely to engage in community service
What is William Damon's take on finding life purpose and adols?
-a major difficulty for today's youth is their lack of a clear sense of what they want to do with their lives -too many youth are essentially rudderless and late to pick their goals (decide in mid/late 20s) -their goals and values too often *focus on the short term rather than the long term*
Religion and Sexuality
-adols with high religiosity are less likely to have sexual intercourse -parents' religiosity linked to a lower level of adols' risky behavior (less sexually permissive peers) -spirituality linked to pos developmental outcomes
what are adoptions like today?
-adopt bc fertility probs, want bigger fam -adopting via foster care system (less newborns, more older kids; parents lost custody) -adopting internationally (though that's not the trend)
Describe the social exclusion from peers that teen parents experience
-all teen parents experience some degree of social exclusion from peers -for some girls, exclusion prior to pregnancy led them to older partners (and, hence, pregnancy) -peer disapproval and loss of friends
lower adolescent disclosure to parents linked with... higher adolescent disclosure to parents linked with...
-antisocial behavior -higher levels of academic competence
Children born to adolescent mothers are more likely to...
-be born preterm -have low birth weights (huge cause on infant mortality) -have neurological problems and childhood illness
Why does Sweden have an *extremely low rate* of unplanned pregnancy and teenage pregnancy?
-begin teaching about biological reproduction when children are 7 years old -they learn in middle school what U.S. adols usually learn in 10th grade (about contraceptives, safe sex, etc.)
the "boy code" as described by Pollack (1999), as well as his response
-boys are socialized to be "little men"; that is, they cannot show feelings and have to act tough -notes that boys would benefit from being socialized to express anxieties and concerns rather than keeping them bottle up -boys would benefit from learning how to better regulate their aggression
What roles do mothers usually play? And in a single parent, mother-headed household?
-caregiving, emotional support, explicit teaching and coaching of social skills -in mother-headed single parent house, functioning of the home is more democratic (negotiate chores/rules due to time pressures)
Oral Sex in the US
-common amongst US adols -negates risk of pregnancy but there is still a threat of STIs -most adols initiated vaginal sex after or within 6 months of starting oral sex
Should Service Learning be required?
-currently, 26% of public HSs require -benefits for both the volunteers and the recipients -most service learning programs do *not* result in cynicism (most students gain stronger moral motivation)
How is the question of religious beliefs and practices a normal part of adolescence?
-de-idealizing of parents (who are likely the enforces of the religion): advances in cog dev, effort to become independent from parents
when parents who demonstrate parental solidarity (e.g., cooperation, mutual respect, balanced communication), adols are likely to...
-develop pos attitude toward both M & F -demonstrate competence in peer relations -Engage in fewer risky behaviors
Attachment security may change — how?
-disruptive experience during childhood/adolescence (death of a parent, unstable care, etc.) -change in parent's behavior -change in partner's behavior
When is the conflict between parents and adols (particularly mothers and sons) most stressful? What is the conflict like for early maturing adolescents?
-during the apex of pubertal growth -Early maturing adols exp. greater conflict with parents than later (normal-time) maturing adols
3 Important parts of the Social Relationships between siblings:
-emotional quality of the relationship (pos/neg emotions) -familiarity and intimacy of the relationship (support or tease/undermine depending on situation) -variation in sibling relationships
Lawrence Walker's approach to MD [specifically focusing on the parent/child]
-emphasizes *emotion* and reasoning -parental interactions with children over time are a critical factor -content of discussions about right and wrong need to be age-appropriate -discussions of real regressions and good deeds are more effective than hypothetical situations [e.g., "you were wrong to do this" v. "imaginary friend billy did something bad'] -Socratic questioning is more effective than didactic teaching
Asian & Latino families have a higher emphasis on ____ than non-Latino white fams. This is linked to...
-family obligations ... lower substance use (less assoc. with deviant peers; higher level of disclosure)
Compared to the 20th century, an increasing number of children are living in ____-custody families. (select all that apply) -mother -sole -father -joint
-father -joint
How are girls more likely to respond to problems at home?
-go outside of the family for alternative sources of support
Cultural changes are coming to many families—there are global trends toward:
-greater family mobility -migration to urban areas -fam members working in distant countries/cities -smaller families -fewer extended-fam households -increases in mothers' employment These all change the resources available to adols!
Cognitive Changes that influence Religious Development
-inc. in abstract thinking lets adols consider various ideas about religious and spiritual concepts (e.g., bible as a historical product rather than sacred doctrine) -inc in idealistic thinking provides a foundation for thinking about whether religion provides the best route to a better, more ideal world than present -inc. in logical reasoning gives adols the ability to develop hypotheses and systematically sort through different answers to spiritual questions
Over the past 30yrs, traditional-aged college students have shown an increased concern for _____ and a decreased concern for _____. However, interest in developing a meaningful philosophy of life increased from __ to __% of US Frosh
-increased concern for personal well-being -decreased concern for the well-being of others, especially for the disadvantaged -39 to 46.8%
Why are grandparents are more common part of children's and adols' lives?
-increased longevity -valuable role in single-parent* or step-parent families -may move in (particularly in immigrant families) *opioid crisis, parents losing custody; suicide amongst middle-age adults; increased immigration
Why don't adolescents use contraception reliably?
-lack of planning (e.g., virginity pledge problem) -lack of access -lack of knowledge -many adols use the methods of (1) withdraw or (2) rhythm methods of contraception (*two of the least effective ways* to prevent pregnancy)
Let's talk about: teen fathers!
-likely to have problems with self-esteem, school work, aggression, drugs, and alcohol -likely to have fathered a child previously -likely to exp. adverse effects on mental health and educational development (more likely among white and hispanic men than black men) -likely to receive little support (from community/family) in becoming responsible parents
Preventative Measures Schools can Implement to Reduce the Allure of Cheating
-making sure students are aware of what constitutes cheating -making clear the consequences if they do cheat -closely monitoring student's behavior while they are taking tests -emphasizing the importance of being a moral, responsible, and trustworthy individual who engages in academic integrity
With sons, fathers are...
-more likely to spend time parenting (particularly with the son) -less likely to get divorced
What roles do fathers play?
-more time on leisure activities and intellectual development (particularly with sons) -spend more time with sons; often show sons more parental warmth than daughters (though parental warmth benefits both) -spend more time on infant care than they did several decades ago, but it is still mainly done by W
Limitations Of Baumrind's Study
-only interviewed mothers (but parents may use different parenting styles -only considered the parenting of one child (each child may be treated differently) -only studied white, middle-class families
What are some of the leading reasons why adolescents cheat?
-pressure for getting high grades -time pressures -poor teaching (view the teacher as incompetent, unfair, and uncaring) -lack of interest
Criticisms of Gilligan's work
-qualitative, based on interviews -research strategy rarely includes a comparison group of boys or statistical analysis -sample of female Harvard students (who were mainly white, middle to higher class); she used this unrepresentative sample to create a general theory (that's a no-no)
How do parents (try to) exert control over teen sexual behavior?
-restrict opportunities -instill fear of loss of financial support -instill fear of consequences (ruin your life, destory your family) -put daughters on contraceptive pills for off-label uses (control acne, minimize menstrual cramps, etc.)
How parents and teens go about addressing sex
-seldom speak about sex directly (saves both parents and teens the discomfort) -don't do anything stupid and don't get in trouble; don't mess around -pregnancy & preg scares may be the only time teens communicate (partially) accurately about their sexual activity
Latino & AA families are more likely to be ____ and be ____. But, their extended family structures are often....
-single-parent families, lower income -protective
3 Caveats to Baumrind's parenting styles
-situations may dictate which parenting style is best at a given time [inconsistent style] -many parents use a combination of techniques [inconsistent; Baumrind says most effective when both use authoritative] -parenting styles don't consider reciprocal socialization
The trends & prevalence of sexual intercourse during adolescence
-slightly fewer adols report that they are having sex (penile-vaginal intercourse) compared to previous eras -however, those who do so are at a *somewhat earlier age* -males tend to *overstate* their level of activity -females tend to *understate* their level of activity
What types of schools tend to have greater hostility toward sexual-minority youth?
-small schools -rural schools -schools in lower-SES communities -schools with fewer explicit rules for student behavior -less racially diverse schools
Sibling relationships in childhood/adol is characterized by
-strong emotions -variations in familiarity and closeness -variations in quality (warm & supportive to irritating & resentful)
Compare Gender Roles to Personality
-the concept of gender role classification involves a personality-trait-like categorization of a person -Just like personality, gender role identity is not expressed or not expressed in the same way in all contexts
Early research on effective parenting focused on...
-the distinction between physical and psychological discipline -the distinction between controlling and permissive parenting
Narváez: Cohort effects on moral reasoning, trend in college students
-there is a cohort effect -recently, postconventional declining among college students and preconventional (personal interest) increasing -declines in prosocial behavior
How do psychologically healthy families adapt to adols' push for independence?
-treat the adol in more adult ways -include the adol in more family decision-making
Early sexual activity (before age 16) is associated with a behavioral profile that includes: *(5 items)*
1. experimentation with drugs and alcohol 2. lower levels of religious involvement 3. minor delinquency 4. lower interest in academic achievement 5. stronger orientation toward independence (from family)
Based on Deborah Tannen's work, communication style impacts play btwn boys and girls in the following ways: 1. girls are not as concerned with statuses as are boys 2. boys' games have winners and losers 3. boys tend to play in small, collaborative games 4. girls take turns more often
1. girls are not as concerned with statuses as are boys 2. boys' games have winners and losers 4. girls take turns more often
Which of the following are possible reasons why parents should stay in an unhappy, conflicted marriage? 1. if the conflict among fam members would inc after divorce 2. if parenting would become more inept after the divorce 3. if the children would have to move out of their neighborhood after the divorce 4. if the conflict between the couple would increase after the divorce
1. if the conflict among fam members would inc after divorce 2. if parenting would become more inept after the divorce 4. if the conflict between the couple would increase after the divorce
Early sexual initiation and risky sexual behavior are part of a pattern of.... (*3 items*)
1. impulsivity 2. sensation seeking 3. propensity to take multiple kinds of risks
3 Important Conclusions about Attachment Stability
1. moderate stability of attachment security occurred from early infant to adulthood 2. no significant stability occurred for time intervals of more than 15 yrs 3. attachment stability was greater when the time span was less than 2yrs or more than 5yrs
How the availability of birth control affected adol sexuality (trends)
1. percentage of sexually active adols *increased during 70s and 80s*; *decreased* slightly from *1995 to 2001*; and has remained *flat (slightly less than 50%)* 2. 1/3 of adols report early sexual intercourse (before 9th grade) 3. Greatest increase in reported prevalence of premarital intercourse has been among F
When compared to their male counterparts relative to school, females are more likely to: 1. retain more positive attitudes about school 2. spend excessive time on social goals 3. be engaged in academic material 4. put forth more academic effort
1. retain more positive attitudes about school 3. be engaged in academic material 4. put forth more academic effort
John Coger (1988) produced four recommendations on how to reduce teen pregnancy
1. sex education and family planning 2. access to contraceptive methods 3. life options approach 4. broad community involvement & support
A recent trend has been a ________ in the number of sexually active adolescent girls who use ________. This likely resulted in ______.
1. sharp increase 2. long-acting reversible contraception (LARC; eg, birth control pills, implantable devices, etc.) 3. the largest drop in teen pregnancies seen in recent years
____ of F rape victims attempt suicide
1/5
____ of pregnant adolescent girls receive prenatal care during the first 3 months of pregnancy
1/5
*Question 2* The 5 Basic Questions concerning Adolescent Moral Development
2. How do adols actually behave in moral circumstance?
A controlling-indulgent parenting style by both mothers and fathers predicts ____ for emerging adults. (Select all that apply) 1. high social acceptance 2. high depression 3. low self worth 4. high anxiety
2. high depression 3. low self worth 4. high anxiety
When it comes to helping behavior, males are more likely to help in situations in which: 1. food is the reward 2. perceived danger is present 3. they feel competent to help 4. there is a beautiful woman
2. perceived danger is present 3. they feel competent to help
Critics of Gilligan's concept of the "different voice" present in adolescent girls suggest Gilligan's research: 1. underestimates the difference in intimacy and connectedness btwn M & F 2. rarely includes statistical analysis 3. reinforces stereotypes 4. rarely includes a comparison group of boys
2. rarely includes statistical analysis 3. reinforces stereotypes 4. rarely includes a comparison group of boys
By age 18, ____ of adols report having had intercourse
2/3
Custodial mothers experience the loss of about ____ of their predivorce income
25 to 50%
*Question 3* The 5 Basic Questions concerning Adolescent Moral Development
3. How do adols feel about moral matters?
Ben, age 14, is close to his older brother Sam, who is 16. According to research, Sam will be: 1. less of a socializing agent for Ben than their parents 2. less of a socializing agent for Ben than their 20yo sister 3. more of a socializing agent for Ben than his peers 4. None of these
3. more of a socializing agent for Ben than his peers
CDC 2015 Study: _____ of HS students repost having had sex in the past 3 months _____ of HS students report within the last year _____ report having had 4+ sexual partners
30% 40% 15%
Twin studies: ___% of the variation in homosexual behavior of men and ___% of the variation in homosexual behavior of women was explained by genetics. These means that genes (*are/are not*) the only factor.
35, 19 are *not*
Most divorced parents remarry within _____. ____ usually remarry faster than ____.
4 years men, women
*Question 4* The 5 Basic Questions concerning Adolescent Moral Development
4. What comprises an adol's moral personality?
Low rates of parental monitoring have been associated with all of the following probs EXCEPT: 1. earlier use of weed 2. inc risk of substance use during adol 3. inc risk of adol depression 4. decreased participation in extracurriculars
4. decreased participation in extracurriculars
According to UNICEF, by age 18, girls from across the globe have received, on average, ____ years less education than boys have
4.4
Although rates have improved since the 1970s, ____% of high school students did *not* use a condom the most recent time they had sex
40%
*Question 5* The 5 Basic Questions concerning Adolescent Moral Development
5. How is the adol's moral domain different from their social conventional & personal domains?
Of the US adolescent girls with unplanned pregnancies resulting in live birth, how many weren't using birth control? How many believed they couldn't get pregnant?
50%, 34%
Daughters of teenage mothers are ___% more likely to become teenage mothers themselves
66%
The teen pregnancy rate in the US is ____x greater than in the Netherlands; this is interesting bc...
6x -the teens are equally sexually active
in the 21st century, the religious interest of college frosh changed from ___ in 1978 to ___ in 2016
8% having no religious preference 16% having no religious preference
when did internal adoptions peak?
80s
___ % of fathers and ___ % of mothers never discussed sex with their daughters
94, 76
Briefly describe how the Hamlin, Bloom, & Wynn (2010) Yale study may contradict Piaget's Theory of MD
@ just 6 months old, infants showed a preference for the helpful toy (regardless of whether it was a doll or shape) this suggests that infants *do* have a sense of morality (thus contradicting the pre-moral stage)
Service Learning
A part of *character education* promoted social responsibility and service to the community; important goal is that adols become less self-centered and more strongly motivated to help others
new model of parent-adolescent relationships
Attachment and autonomy; parents are important support systems, resources, and attachment figures; adolescent-parent and adolescent-peer worlds have some important connections Moderate parent-adolescent conflict is common and can serve a positive developmental function; conflict greater in early adolescence
Old model of parent-adolescent relationships
Autonomy, detachment from parents; parent and peer worlds are isolated Intense, stressful conflict throughout adolescence; parent-adolescent relationships are filled with storm and stress on virtually a daily basis
Gender Differences in Sexual Initiation
Average age reported by F is slighter older than that reported by M -For many F, first sexual experience is *forced* -If the first partner is older, force or coercion are *more likely* (especially if the partner is 2+ years older)
What is the Bem Sex-Role Inventory? What are some items from the Bem Sex-Role Inventory?
BSRI = ranking scale of how well certain characteristics apply to an individual *Masc*: defends own beliefs, forceful, willing to take risks, dominant, aggressive *Fem*: does not use harsh language, affectionate, loves children, understanding, gentle
Boys are just as capable of _______, and girls are just as capable of _____
Boys are just as capable of *love/intimacy as girls* Girls are just as capable of *being fun and outgoing as guys*
Gender Differences in Aggression
Boys more physically aggressive than girls (this finding is supported *across cultures*) [there is no difference in verbal aggression OR females engage in it more] Girls typically engage in more relational aggression -relation aggression accounts for *more* of females' aggression, but mixed findings as to which gender shows it more *BUT:* physical aggression among F is *increasing*
Social Role Theory
By *Alice Eagly* gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of F and M, where F have less power and status and also control fewer resources
What do Gilligan's critics suggest is most important in addressing the gender role issues of adol girls? A) Limiting adol girls' contact with boys B) Focusing research exclusively on girls C) Providing opportunities for girls to achieve D) Nurturing the expression of girls' different voice
C) Providing opportunities for girls to achieve
When gender differences in the brain have been revealed, in many cases they ________ psychological differences. A) have explained known B) have proven to cause significant C) have not been directly linked to D) have been directly linked to
C) have not been directly linked to
What is promiscuity? Is it rare?
CDC Definition: having 4+ sexual partners during lifetime Not rare in adolescence, but it is not the norm either
Authoritative Parenting
Characterize by high responsiveness and high demands -respond to the child's emotional needs and listen to them -maintain high standards and set limits (and consistently enforce them), but explain the reasons behind their rules
Define "Passing"
Common form of self-devaluation in which one hides their real social identity (e.g. some ppl with same-sex attractions may engage in passing)
Freud's Superego & Moral Feeling Theory
Concept of Moral Feeling — a Psychoanalytic Theory The superego is the moral branch of personality; it develops in early childhood when the child resolves the Oedipus conflict Being self-punitive and feeling guilt keeps children and adolescents from committing wrongdoings and transgressions
Gender Controversy — Competing views of Ev Psych, Eagly (SRT), & Hyde
EP: gender differences are extensive and caused by the adaptive probs faced by M and F across evolutionary history Eagly: yes, gender diffs are substantial, but stresses the conditions that have resulted in women having less power and controlling fewer resources than men Hyde: gender diffs have been greatly exaggerated, fueled by popular books (another study also concluded gender diffs in adols are small in most areas)
Describe Multiple Developmental Trajectories
Each trajectory has its own needs and timings Since parents, children, and grandparents operate on different trajectories; how these trajectories conflict or interact affects the timing of entry into various family tasks Think about it as several timelines: Parent: |----|---|-----|-----|-------> Child 1: |---|---|------|----> Child 2: |---|----|-|-|---|-> (can do and provide different things at different points)
Can effective sex education reduce adols' likelihood of having unsafe sex? Can it reduce adols' likelihood of having sex?
Effective sex education *can* reduce adols' likelihood of having unsafe sex Effective sex education *does not* reduce adols' likelihood of having sex
The 4 ethical skills in Integrative Ethical Education
Ethical Sensitivity, Ethical Judgement, Ethical Focus, Ethical Action
Who is more likely to use contraception: US adols or European adols?
European adols (higher usage rate of birth control pills, extensive sex education for children/adols)
Sexual Initiation — & What's the statistical norm? What's the average age?
First time engaging in sexual intercourse Sexual Initiation by age 18 or 19 is a statistical norm for American adols The average age reported by Amer Adols is around 17
Which developmental theory stats that gender-typing happens when children understand what their culture considers appropriate and inappropriate behavior for each gender?
Gender Schema Theory
Clark & Hatfield (1989) — Results
Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers M more often than F agreed to have sex then go on a date M more likely: go to dorm for sex [T2], have sex [T3] Most M that reject offers then apologized and tried to reschedule (what polite dirty dogs!)
Describe the double standard of adolescence sex
Generally communicated by and btwn girls that they have to be careful and discrete, must avoid getting pregnant, and must avoid ruining their reputation girls having sex in casual relationships were looked down upon by peers girls experience significant sex shaming and gossip if they get pregnant (this is typically aimed at girls in a lower SES by girls in a higher SES who are just as sexually active) boys are not like this
Looking at GIH & 12-13yo adols
Girls may become more interested in make-up in jewelry at this age; boys may become more interested in muscle-building at this age *But this does not mean GIH is true*
Effective Parents usually have ____ and provide ____
Have: positive relationships w/ their children and adols Provide: structured, predictable, and organized environments and routines (meals, hw, chores, bedtime)
Siblings & Gender Socialization
In early adolescence, younger siblings become more similar to their same-sex older siblings in terms of gender-role and leisure activity The effect is smaller with other-sex older siblings The effects are stronger for masculine behavior than feminine behavior The older sibling becomes less like the younger sibling [CHECK THIS FACT?] Galambos et al. (2009); McHale et al. (2009)
Consider a middle aged parent who has a child for the first time: what may be happening with their Multiple Developmental Trajectories?
Parent is experiencing cognitive and physical declines while also having to handle the needs (and development) of the child
What is the sexual orientation of a transgender person?
It's the same as everyone else! they can be whateva
___ and ___ have lower levels of Parent-Adol conflict than the US
Japan, India
How does the Social Conventional approach to MD challenge Kohlberg's Theory of MD
Kohlberg argues that social conventions are part of the path towards higher moral reasoning whereas the Social Conventional approach posits that morality and social conventions are distinctly different
Carol Gilligan v. Kohlberg — What did Gilligan assert?
Kohlberg's focus on males allows male norms to put abstract principles above relationships, resulting in a *justice perspective* of morality; he ignores the "female perspective" on morality Gilligan (who ironically focused only on females) argues for a *care perspective*, which views people in terms of their connectedness and concern for others NOTE: there is *little* evidence that provides strong support for her theory; rather *females often show both perspectives*
Differences in communication
M: report talk; use language more instrumentally F: rapport talk; use language more expressively M are "thing-oriented" F are "people-oriented"
Since 1965, the proportion of M adols reporting sexual experience has _____. Since 1965, the proportion of F adols reporting sexual experience has _____.
M: tripled F: increased 500%
Males assuming feminine behaviors and Females assuming masculine behaviors — What are the trends? How does society react?
Males are *less likely* to model female-typed behavior b/c it is less likely to be accepted and tolerated Females, to an extent, are rewarded and viewed positively for modeling male-typed behavior (assertiveness, ambition, etc.) For generations, there has been more tolerance for gender non-conforming behavior by F than by M
Parents as managers for children/adols
Manage the home environment, adol's intellectual capital, routines of daily life (IMPORTANT)
What three factors of a family have both indirect and direct influences on the child/adolescent
Martial relationship, parenting, & child behavior/development
Would same-sex education be better than coed education?
Mixed Data, but the results below are especially true for high school students: - Boys tend to better in coed - Girls tend to better in single-sex - AA Males *may* due better in single-sex (study had low n, little replication) *overall, no documented benefit of single-sex education* (and this has been reported by high quality studies) -same-sex edu reduces opportunities for M & F to work together in a purposeful and supervised environment -many factors that benefit students' edu are more likely to be found in coed schools Culture strongly influences one's views on this question (and their choices of where to send their kids to school); e.g., strict religious views may induce a preference for single-sex
Darcia Narváez's suggestion to schools in providing effective moral education
Narváez emphasized an *integrative approach* to moral education -reflective *moral thinking and commitment to justice* (as seen in *Kohlberg*'s approach) -Developing a particular *moral character* (set of moral values) as advocated in the *character education* approach
Ethnic Differences in Sexual Initiation
Nearly 1/4 of AA Males report sexual initiation occurred before age 14 Only 4% of White M and 9% of Hispanic M reported sexual initiation before age 14 AA likely to engage in sexual behaviors the earliest; Asain American likely to engage the latest --- The ethnic differences in age of Sexual Initiation are far smaller among F
Is there a universal definition for healthy sexuality?
No, it varies from group to group and it varies from individual to individual
Are moral and social conventional domains universal?
No, what is in the moral domain of one culture may be in the social conventional domain of another culture [and vice versa]
Does every person have a moral personality or a moral identity?
Nope!
Is knowledge of risks enough?
Nope! knowledge of the risks alone is not sufficient to keep adolescents from risky behaviors More easily accessible contraception would more successfully deter or reduce risky behaviors of adols
How can open adoption help?
Open adoption can help with identity issues in adolescence and young adulthood, as it allows the adoptee to have a positive meeting with their birth parents especially true is the relationship between the child and the adoptive parents is positive and relatively unconflicted
What type of parent-child experiences can induce more advanced levels of moral reasoning in an adol? Do parents often do this?
Parents who allow or encourage conversation about value-laden issues often promote more advanced moral thought Many parents do *not* systematically provide their children and adols with such experiences
Moral Performance
Part of *Social Cognitive Theory of MD* performing those behaviors in specific situations, determined by motivation and incentives to act in a specific moral way
Moral Competence
Part of *Social Cognitive Theory of MD* the ability to produce moral behaviors; primarily an outgrowth of cognitive-sensory processes competencies include what they are capable of, their skills, their knowledge, their awareness of moral rules, and their cognitive ability to construct behaviors
"Slut Disclosure"
Pregnancy serves as a physical marker that "someone is a slut"
Would the BSRI work well today?
Probably not, b/c the idealized characteristics of M and F have changed (e.g., women are becoming more assertive and its becoming more socially acceptable)
Sexual Identity
Sexual Identity involved personal values, standards for sexual expression, and self-control that is consistent with the overall self-image Requires mastering sexual feelings and developing standards regarding sex SI emerges in the context of physical factors, social factors, and cultural factors -strongly influenced by social norms related to sex -involves an indication of sexual orientation that involves activities, interests, and styles of behavior
Effects of Pubertal Changes & Perspective of Gender Identity
Pubertal changes may result in masculinity and femininity being rethought during adolescence [much of the rethinking involves sexuality]
The Relation of Puberty & Gender *NOTE: _______ attempts have been made to relate ____ and ____
Puberty intensifies the sexual aspects of adolescents' gender attitudes and behaviors *FEW; puberty's sexual changes; gender behavior
The Only Child: A Spoiled Brat?
Research says *no*. -desirable personality (esp. in comparison to later-born children) -academically oriented
Describe the cognitive approach's critique of the SCT of gender
SCT pays too little attention to the child's own mind and understanding and, thus, portrays the child as passively acquiring gender roles
____ is more associated with risky sex, sexual intercourse, contraceptive use, pregnancy, abortion, and parenthood than ____
SES; religion
STDs — let's talk about that! (causes, some examples)
STDs can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites that are transmitted through sexual contact *Bacteria*: gonorrhea, chlamydia *Virus*: herpes, human papilloma virus
Schools, Teachers, & Gender Socialization
Schools & Teachers *may have biases* against both boys and girls Classrooms & Teachers tend to -enforce compliance & following the rules -value and reinforce neatness and orderliness ^^These behaviors tend to character girls more than boys Boys tend to struggle with sitting in rows, being quiet, and complying with instruction (AKA: School may be tougher for boys than girls, and boys may be scorned/punished more often) *Boys and their needs may not be well understood* by teachers because most teachers are F; boys may have a harder time identifying with and modeling a F teacher Boys are more likely than girls: -to have a learning disability or ADHD and to drop out -to be criticized by their teachers School personnel tend to: -ignore clear evidence that boys are having academic problems (especially in language arts) -stereotype boys' behavior as problematic
Schools and Teen Sexuality
Schools are an important influence on adols' feelings about sex and sexual behavior Schools provide sex education (either abstinence-only or comprehensive programs) Schools are a social context for peer interaction many hours every week
Ainsworth's Adult Attachment Interview identified four types of attachment
Secure Avoidant/Dismissing Ambivalent/Preoccupied Disorganized
Statistical Norms v. Injunctive Norms
Statistical Norms: What people actually do Injunctive Norms: what people are told (in various ways) they must do (or must not do)
An Indian approach to MD
Stresses and orientation to duty, indifference to rewards, and equanimity* *equanimity: mental calmness, composure, and evenness of temper
True or False: moral reasoning can be used to justify immoral behavior, such as: genocide, attacks on unarmed protestors, murder, appeals to violence against political opponents/immigrants/racial minorities
TRUE and those listed examples have all been justified by moral reasoning (e.g., "God is on our side")
True or False: There is more contact between emerging adults and parents than ever before. WHY?
TRUE more co-residence and financial dependence; "boomerang kids"
Clark & Hatfield (1989) — Design & Purpose
Testing the two competing theories: 1. evolution has led to these two mating strategies 2. culture strongly influences differences in sexual attitudes/behaviors between the genders M offer unsolicited sex (3 diff reasons explained — the diff treatments) to F; and vice versa 2 Competing Hypotheses: 1. will follow these strategies [ev psych] 2. F would be more willing (than otherwise) to have sex b/c of contraceptives & birth control [culture]
According to Kohlberg, what prompts a change in one's moral orientation? What's a catalyst to it
The individual's moral orientation unfolds as a consequence of cognitive development and exposure to appropriate social experiences (e.g., parent & peer interaction) Moral thought can progress to a higher level through exposure to models and discussion that is more advanced than the adol's current level
Do religion and spirituality overlap?
They can, but they do not have to
What best characterizes how EAs respond to intergenerational relationships?
They may choose to replicate or alter the legacies of the older generations
Bowlby's Internal Working Model
This child forms a mental representation of their relationship with their caregiver as a template for relationships. May affect later relationships and parenting ability. Cog rep of the self as loveable and worthy, will expect loving, caring, and good relationships with others in the future
Title IX & Pregnant Teens
Title IX prohibits the exclusion of pregnant girls from school So: many schools essentially force be treating the students so poorly that they drop out However: other schools provide programs aimed to help pregnant teens; programs like these make teen moms more likely to complete their education; tjeu may become better moms because of it
True of False: Attention problems and high rates of aggressive/disruptive behavior at the time of school entry increased the risk of multiple problems in MS, which was linked with early sexual activity
True
True or False: Adol Fs view themselves as more prosocial and empathetic than M, and they also engage in more prosocial behavior than M
True
True or False: Androgens also increase in F, increasing their sexual desire
True
True or False: Both Piaget and Kohlberg believed that moral reasoning developed in stages (discontinuous)
True
True or False: Despite the views of Piaget and Kohlberg, research has shown that both parents and peers contribute to the development of moral maturity
True
True or False: Prosocial behavior occurs more often in adolescence than in childhood
True
True or False: Some moral exemplars may have feet of clay
True
True or False: There is considerable variability in the empathetic behavior of adolescents, for its development is dependent on developmental contexts
True
True or False: Too strong of an empathetic response can cause a person to freeze up rather than act altrusitically
True
True or False: females have an especially important role in connecting family relationships across generations
True
True or False: sexual ignorance, sexual misinformation, and sexual messages are the types of knowledge that US adols and adults get
True
True or False: in some states, a husband can legally force their wife to have sex with them
True
True or False: peer norms be pro-sex or anti-sex and statistical norms or injunctive norms
True
True or false: Adolescent Fathers have lower incomes, less education, & have more children than do men who delay having children until their 20s
True
True or False: According to Kohlberg, parental influence can still be important to the adolescent's MD — particularly when the parent-child experiences are direct and explicit
True!
Vacations & Sexual Initiation
Vacations are *linked* to sexual initiation (peaks in the summer months during vacayyyy)
Relative to the influence of media, how can parents be a factor in this?
Where the parents are busy, working, and not present, media may be unrestricted and serve as a source of information concerning gender roles. Additionally, when parents are busy and preoccupied, it is *less likely* that parents will talk to kids about gender roles, relationships, and media problems.
Teen Pregnancy — is it still a problem?
While rates of teen pregnancy are declining, yes, it is still a problem
Did Erikson ever change his view of gender? Why or why not?
Yes, modified his views later on Saw the influence of culture on gender behavior (females began to show more intrusive, ambitious, and go-get-em behavior as they were permitted more opportunities outside of the home)
Chumships (Sullivan)
a best friend of same-sex is essential to healthy development (learn social intimacy in friendship, disclosure and vulnerability, learn to trust others and to be trustworthy)
Gratitude
a feeling of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in response to someone doing something kind or helpful Linked to well-being, optimism, fewer depressive symptoms, and prosocial behavior
What is Socratic questioning?
a form of questioning that encourages perspective taking and induces empathy
When divorced parents have _____ and use _____, adjustment of the adol is improved
a harmonious relationship authoritative parenting
The most important cultural influence on prosocial behavior is
a strong belief in family
Emotional Autonomy
ability to accept and feel okay/proud/positively of oneself w/o the need for parental or peer approval
contextual variations regarding gender in specific situations are found ____ cultures
across
Siblings usually talk about
activities, media, and school [less than 10% of the time is spent discussing friends/family/eating/body image]
Value Clarification
additional approach to moral education -help individs identify their purpose in life and determine which outcomes are worth working for -encourage adols to define their own values and understand the values of others
What factors are involved in the adol's risk and vulenerability during a divorce
adol's adjustment before the divorce, personality, temperament, developmental status, gender, intelligence, and custody arrangements
adolescent adjustment is positively linked to...
adol's disclosure to parents about their whereabouts, activities, and friends
Mixed messages about sex (girls, boys, media)
adolescents (especially girls) are told not to have sex, but sex is portrayed positively (especially for boys) in media
Among immigrant families, conflict is higher when...
adolescents are more acculturated and assimilated [in contrast, conflict is lower when adols more strongly identify with their parents' culture]
Indulgent Parenting is linked to
adolescents failing to learn how to control their behavior, an expectation to always get their way, social incompetence
Sexting is *not* just a problem with ____ and ____
adols, young adults
Some transgender identifying people will eventually...
adopt a gender identity in line with the body that they were born with
When divorced parents can _____ and maintain _____, frequent visits from the noncustodial parent can usually benefit the adol
agree on child-rearing strategies a cordial relationship
Moral Identity
an aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments that are *central* to their lives [thus, behaving in a manner that violates this moral commitment creates cognitive dissonance and places the integrity of the self at risk]
Critics of androgyny say that... These critics also argue in favor of...
androgyny is not a panacea gender role transcendence
The Integrative Ethical Education
another integrative moral education program that builds on the concept of *expertise in a specific behavioral domain* -effective with models & role-play to view, imitate, and practice moral behavior
Studies revealed that moral identity predicted the health outcomes of....
anxiety, depression, hazardous alcohol use, sexual risk taking, and SE (w/ moral identity, first 4 are lower and SE is higher)
Media often portray teenage girls as being most concerned with: (*select all that apply*) 1. appearance 2. dating 3. education 4. shopping
appearance, dating, shopping
Birth Order Differences: tell me about that
are *very small*
Mollborn's recommendations for teens
ask for help use information from responsible adults rather than peers work to be more sexually autonomous (aka, independent from perceived peer norms)
Estrogen increase girls' _____ to boys
attractiveness
Adolescent prosociality is strongly promoted by
authoritative mothers
Gender Stereotypes — Define & Discuss
automatically invoked beliefs about females and males - to a great extent, still present in today's world and in the lives of both children and adults - research suggests that boy's gender stereotypes are more rigid than girl's gender stereotypes - research continues to support that gender stereotyping is pervasive
Authoritative parenting is associated with adolescents who are less likely to ____ and ____
become sexually active at an early age engage in risky sexual behavior
Date Rape
being forced to have sex by a date (NOTE: can happen to anywhere, but especially a problem on college campuses [bc there's no parental supervision and unlimited access to alcohol])
How do teens justify abstinence?
being moral, being smart; not ready yet
How do teens justify sexual activity?
being normal, being smart "Everyone is doing it, so why am I not doing it?" "We are programmed to have sex. It's going to happen anyways." using contraception consistently "Technical" Virgins
Since the late 60s, freshman in college have shown an increased interest in ______. What does this mean for their philosophy of life?
being well-off financially (w/ a decline in developing a meaningful philosophy of life) they can still have a philosophy of life, but it is not nearly as meaningful (but NOTE: do not need a PoL to have integrity and virtue) There have been some increases in developing a meaningful philosophy of life, but it is still below 50%
Define values
beliefs and attitudes about the ways things should be they involve what is important to us (e.g., how ppl should treat others)
Simple Step Families are ______
better than complex step families and conflicted nondivorced families (LT Simple step families: majority [75% of adols] report close relationships — this means the fam benefits from the presence and resources of a step parent)
Male brains are ____, but _____. The ___ and ___ are proportionally larger in males. The ___ and ___ are proportionally larger in females. Males have a larger section dedicated to ____ in the parietal lobe. Female brains have more _____.
bigger; *not* in proportion to body size amygdala; hypothalamus hippocampus; caudate nucleus visuospatial skills convolutions (folds)
The three types of influences on gender include
biological, social, and cognitive influences
_____ factors have a strong influence on boys' sexual interests. There are also ____ that are common among adols about frustrated sexual urges
biological; myths
the largest number of child/adols with gay/lesbian parents were...
born in heterosexual relationships
gay/lesbian parents are more likely to _____ than heterosexual parents
co-parent
Empathy has both a ____ and ____ component. Describe each!
cognitive and emotional cognitive component: the ability to discern another's inner psychological states (perspective-taking)
Gender non-conforming behavior is ____ in childhood and more tolerated for ____.
common girls
Mollborn's recommendations for schools
comprehensive sex edu that includes information about *psychological development, negotiation skills w/in relationships, and "planful competence"* (pc=knowing how to say no, not engaging in sex impulsively, using contraception for safe sex)
_____ and ____ are the best prevention tools against STDs, STIs, and Pregnancy. Also, programs must focus on...
condoms and education <3 ...the benefits of condom use rather than the costs of not using them
Albert Bandura stressed that people who engage in harmful conduct have...
constructed (and construed) moral justifications
Traditional gender roles ____ in many countries around the world today. *Elaborate.*
continue -girls' access to education has improved somewhat worldwide, but their education still lags behind that of boys -despite these gender gaps, evidence of increasing gender equality is appearing
What is the biggest difference between teens that become pregnant and those that do not?
contraceptive use
The personal domain includes
control over one's body, privacy, and choice of friends & activities
The 4 dimensions balanced by Baumrind's parenting styles
control, acceptance, demand, and responsiveness
Most negative outcomes for emerging adult children are related to a ___ parenting styles on the part of both mothers and fathers
controlling-indulgent
"trans" as an umbrella term
could be a better term to use to identify a variety of gender identities and expressions
Social Domain Theory
deals with moral, social conventional, and personal domains of behavior and judgments According to SDT, key aspects of morality involve judgments about welfare, justice, and the rights and struggles of individuals have with moral issues in their lives Debate as to when children (preschoolers) can differentiate btwn the 3 domains
A recent developmental study showed that religiousness ____ from 14 to 20 years of age in the US
decline
In the last 30-40 yrs, the US has seen a ____ in the adoption of traditional gender roles. (i.e., the view that traditional gender roles should be upheld is ____)
decline; declining
In the US and in Europe, interest in religion has.... BUT Religious issues are ____ to many adols and emerging adults
declined important
Strong religious involvement is linked with ____
delayed sexual initiation (after age 18)
Notably, the Gender Schema Theory...
does *not* make clearly differentiated predictions from social cognitive theories
Gilligan describes the different voice, the concept that young, adol girls become aware that the male dominated culture ________ even though society _____
does not value their intense interest in intimacy values women's caring and altruism
Most of the conflict centers on
dress, neatness, hours, media use VERY RARELY focuses on serious issues or basic values (values, goals, right/wrong, drugs, etc.)
Early sexual activity is linked to risky behaviors, such as...
drug use, delinquency, and school-related problems
Teen Pregnancy in the US — Stats
each year, 600k+ American adols between 15 and 19 become pregnant — about 90% of which are unintended the US has the highest teen pregnancy rate among all industrialized countries teen preg rates are dramatically lower than they were in the 1990s (during which it was 2x as high as it is today) Rates of teen pregnancy vary *considerably* by ethnicity
Most of the increase in the conflict between parents and adolescents is limited to ______ and is largely due to ___(3)___ changes
early adolescence physical, cognitive, and social changes
When is it easier to teach androgyny? And who is easier to teach to?
easier to teach before middle school easier to teach to girls than boys
Parents in satisfying marriages are generally.... Why?
effective parents -happily married parents tend to be more sensitive, responsive, warm, and affectionate toward their children and adolescents
moral maturity may be...
elusive! (not everyone achieves it)
When is hooking up & FWB most common?
emerging adulthood (much more common during EA than late 20s)
Define "Risk Factors"
factors that increase the likelihood of some behavior or condition
School is a ______ cultural invention
fairly recent
Adolescent abortion rate is _____ in the US, but....
falling -but adol girls are more likely to delay abortion until 15 weeks of pregnancy, when the medical risks are v high
What happens when an EA returns to live with their parents?
family-life disequilibrium -more conflicts over bigger issues (sexual partners, independence)
Who tends to show more psychological dependence on parents?
female students
Less sibling conflict and higher sibling warmth is linked with...
fewer internalizing/externalizing problems
in many cultural contexts, gender-role classification is more ____.
flexible
The Work of Nolen-Hoeksema
focused on the predictors of anxiety and depression in adolescents -girls face risks at a higher rate than boys -girls are more likely to use rumination and co-rumination in response to stressors (reinforcing the negatives; thus failing to find distractions and failing to identify and solve the problem) -boys more likely to use distractions to get their minds back to a healthier state (health distractions, like sports; also unhealthy distractions, like drugs)
Social Conventional Reasoning
focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus and convention in order to control behavior and maintain the social system [as opposed to moral reasoning, which stresses ethical issues and the non-arbitrary rules of morality]
Rates of cheating, plagiarism (as per 2006 study)
for Secondary School Students: -60% cheated on a test during the past year -1/3 plagiarized information from the internet
Does religious socialization (sunday school, etc) work?
generally yes—adols tend to adopt the religious teachings of their upbringing -important, however, to consider the quality of the parent-adol relationship and whether mothers or fathers are more influential (when relation is pos, more likely to follow the religious traditions)
The View of Carol Gilligan
girls experience life differently from boys; girls have a "different voice" -in early adol, girls become aware that the male-dominated culture does not value their intense interest in intimacy -The dilemma: girls are presented with a choice that make them appear either selfish or selfless -As young girls struggle with this dilemma, they being to "silence" their "different voice"
Social influences have a stronger effect on ___ than ___
girls; boys
with higher SES and more education, a father is more likely to
give equal time to his sons and daughters
Items that fall into the domain of social conventions:
gossip, saying mean things to someone, shouting to get your way, pushing ahead of others, cursing, eating with your hands
Low Parental Monitoring is associated with...
greater depression, lower academic achievement, greater delinquency, substance use, early drinking, earlier sexual initiation
A substantial number of sexual minority youth are ____, ____, or _____ by peers or adults while growing up
harassed physically abused verbally abused
Early adolescence may be a period of ________ to media messages about gender roles. Much scheduled program is _________ and conveys clear messages about the _______ and ______ of women and men.
heightened sensitivity highly gender-stereotyped relative power importance
In comparison to European American families, researchers have found _________ in Asian Indian Immigrant families
higher endorsement of explicit moral training and shaming
Service Learning benefits adols in a number of ways:
higher grades, increased goal setting, higher SE, improved sense of being able to make a difference for others, increased likelihood that they will serves as volunteers in the future
Authoritarian parenting is linked to
higher levels of externalizing problems, depressive symptoms, socially incompetent behavior, anxiety about social comparison, failure to initiate activity, and poor communication skills
Adolescents are abused and neglected at _______ than children. These victims are disproportionately ____ and ____
higher rates female and poor
What adolescent probs are associated with adoption? Do they adjust?
higher rates of internalizing and externalizing problems, ADHD, serious mental health problems, identity conflicts The majority *adjust well*
For both boys and girls, more private time with fathers was linked to
higher self-worth and social skills
Arguments against single-sex education conclude that the concept is: (*select all that apply*) 1. highly misguided 2. skewed toward the wealthy 3. misconstrued 4. unsupported by valid scientific evidence
highly misguided, misconstrued, & unsupported by valid scientific evidence
In learning moral behavior, the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment depends on...
how consistently they are administered
Family Processes
how the family functions; family systems for meeting the everyday and long-term needs -survival, safety, food, health, socialization, preparation for adult roles -communication, connection/independence, flexibility (and role adaptation)
Describe Piaget's experiment and Kohlberg's experiment of MD
i'm not typing this
"Red Zone"
identified by universities -a period of time early in the first year of college when women are at an especially high sick of unwanted sexual experiences
Mollborn's recommendations for communities
identify gaps in what support teens need to be sexually healthy
How may single-parent mothers be modeling sexual activity for their adolescent
if the mother is dating (and she may be bringing that boy back home), this may model sexual activity for the (F) adol
Adolescent contraceptive use _____ and then ____
improved then declined (but not to previous levels)
Genetics, for both boys and girls, influence ______. Another factor that may make this worse?
impulsivity -can be worsened by social influences
Adopting a strong traditional masculine role in adolescence is...
increasingly found to be linked to problem behaviors
How parents often attempt to communicate about sex with their teens
indirect techniques, cautionary tales and gossip to communicate norms often don't giver any concrete info or advice (those dummies) about: -how to negotiate sexual situations -how to access and use contraception -how to avoid sexual risks
Describe Bandura's Moral Self
individuals adopt standards of right and wrong that serve as guides and deterrents for conduct
Transgender refers to...
individuals who have, or develop, a gender identity that differs from the one assigned at birth
Hazan & Shaver: insecure *anxious attachment*
insecure *anxious attachment* -demand closeness, are less trusting, and more emotional/jealous/possessive -constantly seeking approval -associated with negative physical and emotional health outcomes
Hazan & Shaver: insecure *avoidant attachment*
insecure *avoidant attachment* -associated with less stable relationships -hesitant to get involved in romantic relationship; tend to distance themselves from their partner -associated with negative physical and emotional health outcomes
Mothers who are more _____ and better _____ before the birth of their infant have greater parenting skills later
intelligent; adjusted
According to the Gender Schema Theory, children and adols are...
internally motivated to perceive the world and to act in accordance with their developing schemas
the identity integration of late adols / EAs may be related to
intrinsic religious orientation and self-reported altruism
Adols from a higher SES seem _____ to the ideas their sexual activity entails a risk of pregnancy
invulnerable
Is the GIH a real phenomenon?
it is occurs at all, it is restricted by SES -GIH is restricted to children of significantly less educated parents who hold low educational aspirations for their children -in a higher SES, gender intensification is less likely to happen or happens to a lower extent
Moral judgments involve concepts of ____ Social Conventional judgments involve concepts of
justice social organization
The largest difference in prosocial behavior occurs for ____ with a smaller difference for ____.
kind and considerate behavior; sharing
in the US, ethnic minority families are _____ and more likely to be ____
larger; multigenerational
Behavioral Autonomy
learning self-care and self-discipline (self-regulating sleep, schedule, laundry, health, etc.)
With age, adols become ____ prejudiced against gay and lesbian-identifying people
less
Concerning gender non-conforming behavior, fathers tend to be...
less accepting/understanding and more intolerant
Adolescents and parents who talk open and freely about sex = adolescents who are...
less likely to be sexually active
For AA youth, higher parental warmth was associated with
less risky behavior
The view of sex during mid-20th century v. now
mid-20th century: appropriate for married couples now: appropriate for both married and single adults
For children, the distinction btwn..........may not always be clear
moral domains and the domains of social conventions
According to Narváez, a mature moral individual cares about...
morality and being a moral person (i.e., moral identity is a way of caring about morality)
A key concept underlying Kohlberg's Theory of MD is that...
morality becomes more internal or mature as one develops (i.e., moral reasoning becomes less external and superficial)
According to Freud, F are _____ compared to M
morally weaker
Adolescent girls are ____ religious than adol boys
more
Mothers are _____ likely to have a managerial role in parenting than fathers
more
Bem described androgynous men and women as...
more flexible and more mentally healthy than either masc. or fem. individuals
Most developmentalists emphasize that parents play _______ roles in children's and adols' MD than Kohlberg envisioned. How so?
more important important components of child/adols' MD: -parents' communication with the child/adol -disciplinary techniques -induce internal understanding of good/bad interactions -induce conscientiousness
18 to 24 year olds (late adols / emerging adults) in less-developed countries are _____ to be religious than their counterparts in more developed countries
more likely
Induction appears to be ______ related to moral development than is love withdraw or power assertion, but findings vary according to developmental level and socioeconomic status
more positively
since the 1970s, more women have been seeking an education and pursuing higher level jobs. More opportunities leads to ______.
more role flexibility
Describe the nature of "sexual interest" during (early) adolescence
more so curiosity than actual personal, romantic interest in another person
By the end of 10th grade, _____ report having had heterosexual vaginal intercourse
more than 40%
Describe Jonathan Haidt's Social Intuition Theory
most moral thinking is an intuitive gut reaction that has developed over the course of human evolution; any deliberative moral reasoning is often an after-the-fact justification argues that a major flaw in Kohlberg's Theory of MD is the view that moral thinking is conscious and deliberative
Are mothers or are fathers more likely to accept their sexual minority children?
mothers
The most positive outcomes and highest social competence were found when...
mothers used authoritative parenting (and authoritative parenting seems to be beneficial across cultures)
Intense parent-adol conflict is associated with
moving away from home, juvenile delinquency, school problems, dropping out, pregnancy, early marriage, religious cults, drug abuse, aggression, depression, anxiety, low SE, less empathy
______ of American 9th graders report that they have had sexual intercourse
nearly 1/3
Kohlberg argued that emotions have _______ effects on moral reasoning, but there is increasing evidence that indicates that emotions....
negative; an important role
Adolescents what watch more sexually explicit TV are more likely to initiate sexual intercourse within in the ______-
next 12 months
Which perspective (evolutionary, social, social cognitive, or cultural) is the most accurate in explaining gender differences?
none do so perfectly
among adols, gossip and rumors generally communicate...
norms against casual sex with multiple partners and against abortion
Generally, describe the social cognitive theory of gender
observation, imitation, rewards, and punishment are the mechanisms by which gender develops
Smaller families may encourage ___ and ____ between parents and adols
openness and communication
The Moral Personalities of Adols and Young Adults may be influences by moral exemplars. Moral exmplars are...
people who have led exemplary lives and whose lives illustrate strong moral virtue and moral commitment -have moral personality, moral identity, moral character, and set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment
At about 10-12yo, individuals develop empathy for...
people who live in unfortunate circumstances; their concerns are no longer limited to the feelings of particular persons in situations they directly observe
Adolescent and young adult cynicism about religion is linked to...
perception of hypocrisy, generational differences in openness to difference, and sexual abuse scandals
_____ and _____ in the 1990s emphasized the differences btwn adults. These studies used a lot of ____, which really just isn't ____. They _____ the gender differences
popular psychology, popular sociology anecdotes, data overemphasized
Boys who are more ____ and ____ tend to initiate sex _____ than unpopular boys
popular with girls mature earlier earlier
Prosocial norms and spirituality are linked to _____ sexual outcomes for adolescents, including...
positive -being less likely to have sex -not likely to engage in sex -having sex less frequently -not becoming pregnant
Emerging adults report that they have more ______ affect when they have vaginal sex. They report higher levels of ______ affect if they have sex with a non dating partner or experience more negative consequences of sex
positive negative
High Parental Monitoring is associated with...
positive developmental outcomes, higher adol willingness to disclose information, higher grades, less risky and less sexually risky behavior
Helicopter parents can have a ____ effect early on, but a ___ effect later
positive, negative
Many of the problems that afflict children born to adolescent mothers result primarily from ____ and _____. *BUT* adolescent mothers may perceive their babies as...
poverty and single parenthood ...being more difficult and thus have more problems interacting with them
Androgyny
presence of a high degree of masc. and fem. characteristics in the same individual
Gender Intensification Hypothesis
psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence b/c of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles
Some social scientists argue that...
psychological gender differences are due mainly to social experiences
Some changes in adolescence that may influence parent-adol relationships:
puberty, expanded logical reasoning, increasingly idealistic thinking, violated expectations of parents, changes in schooling, peers, friendships, dating, movement toward independence
the largest difference in teenage childbearing is due mainly to...
racial differences in unintended pregnancies
Define empathy
reacting to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to that person's feelings
Measures of achievement in school or standardized test scores may....
reflect factors besides cognitive ability
What 3 components are essential to learning *moral behavior*
reinforcement, punishment, and imitation (modeling)
According to William Damon, the one long-standing source for discovering purpose in life is...
religion
Compliant, anonymous, and altruistic prosociality are related to
religiosity
Quid Pro Quo Sexual Harassment
school employee threatens to base an educational decision on a student's submission to unwelcome sexual contact
When conflict or insecure attachment characterizes the parent-adol relationship, adols may...
seek a religious affiliation different from their parents
In cultures were both boys and girls regularly care for younger siblings, boys and girls are similar in their _____. This helps to show that _____ is important.
tendency to nurture context
define Religiousness
the *degree of affiliation with an organized religion, participation* in its prescribed rituals and practices, *connection* with its beliefs, and *involvement* in a community of believers
In teaching moral behavior, the effectiveness of modeling depends on...
the characteristics of the model and the presence of cognitive processes to enhance the retention of the modeled behavior [when models model lying, cheating, brag about evading taxes, etc., they are bad models for learning good moral behavior]
Bowlby & Ainsworth argue that secure attachment in infancy is essential to
the development of social competence, for secure attachment is an important foundation to psychological development later in life
Women are now accounting for... Women are more like to ___ and ___ college.
the majority of college graduates, law students, and medical students enroll in, graduate from
Some of the "Multiple Developmental Trajectories" that families encompass include those of...
the parents, children, and (often times) grandparents
Most research in gender roles has been done in ____
the past century
Moral Character (James Rest)
the person has set moral goals and achieving those goals involves the commitment to act in accordance to those goals i.e., *moral motivation involves prioritizing moral values over other personal values* James Rest posits the importance of *motivation* in MD
serial monogamy
the sexual life of emerging adults is often characterized as "one partner at a time"
Co-Parenting — Define; where is it a problem?
the sharing of the responsibility of parenting -a problem for: two-parent families, divorced parents, and never-married parents
The timing of sexual initiation, though it caries by ethnicity, culture, and gender, is largely linked to ____
the values and customs of one's culture
Recent research into gender difference in math ability has found that in the US...
there are no significant differences in math test scores for boys and girls
Gender behavior often ____ across contexts
varies
Adols' beliefs about the age at which it is acceptable to begin having sex ______
varies across countries
Girls are usually more _____ aggressive than boys
verbally
Boys tend to outperform girls in _____. Girls tend to outperform boys in _____.
visuospatial skills reading & writing
Worldwide, the most effective parenting is described as ___ and ___
warm, controlling
Consider parents who delay having children: how are older fathers? what does this imply?
warmer, communicate better, encourage more achievement, place fewer demands on their children, more lax in enforcing the rules, and show less rejection with their children than younger fathers less likely to engage in physical play or sports with their children sociohistorical changes result from the different MDTs of families, and these changes alter the family dynamic
Describe the perception of gender roles through the mid-20th century
well-adjusted boy was supposed to be independent, aggressive, and powerful well-adjusted girl was supposed to be dependent, nurturing, and uniterested in poer masc. traits were valued; fem. traits were undervalued
Adolescents' acceptance of themselves and their sexuality seem to predict _____
wether or not they will use contraceptives
Gender-Role Transcendence
when an individuals competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on a personal basis rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny
Gender Identity
which gender an individual believes he/she is
In public (and private) American schools, sexual harassment is ____
widespread
From birth on, male health is ___ and males have ___. M have higher levels of ____, resulting in ____ and ____. F are *less likely* to develop ___. F are more resistant to ____ and have more ____ blood vessels.
worse; higher mortality stress hormones; faster clotting and higher bp physical/mental disorders infection; elastic
Is increased sibling intimacy linked to increased peer competence?
yea
Is traditional parenting more common than authoritative parenting?
yes ma'am
