Ch. 8 - Training and On-boarding
Dual responsibility in training
The organization is responsible for providing an atmosphere that will support and encourage changes, and the individual is responsible fore deriving maximum benefit from the learning opportunities provided
Evaluation phase
The twofold process that involves (1) establishing indicators of success in training, as well as on the job, and (2) determining exactly what job-related changes have occurred as a result of training
Orientation follow-up
The worst mistake a company can make is to ignore the new employee after orientation Almost as bad is an informal open-door policy "come see me if you have questions"
Rapid Prototyping
Three-phased approach to training (1) assessment of needs and the determination of training objectives (2) constructing prototypes and testing them as users (3) implementing and refining the training
Active practice
Trainer should be available to oversee trainee's practice directly Error-managment (new approach) - encourages employees to make errors, and then engage in reflection to understand why they made them
Goal setting
"A person who wants to develop themselves will do so; a person who wants to be developed rarely is" Cognitive ability and motivation predict training outcomes conscientiousness and internal locus of control are important determinants of motivation to learn Most effective way to raise motivation is by setting goals - leads to 10% improvement
3 implications of goal theory for motivating trainees
(1) Make the objectives of the training program clear at the outset (2) Set goals that are challenging an difficult enough that the trainees can derive personal satisfaction from achieving them, but not so difficult that they are previewed as impossible to reach (3) Supplement the ultimate goal of finishing the program with subgoals during training, such as trainer evaluations, work sample tests, and periodic quizzes Exceptions of trainer also affect trainee's motivation (higher expectations, higher performance)
Four levels of analysis to determine the needs that training can fulfill
(1) Organization analysis (2) Demographic analysis (3) Operations analysis (4) Individual analysis
Four characteristics that distinguish companies with the most effective training practices
(1) Top management is committed (2) training is tied to business strategy and objectives and is linked to bottom-line results (3) Organizational environments are feedback rich (4) There is commitment to invest the necessary resources, to provide sufficient time and money for training
3 phases of training system
(1) assessment phase (2) training and development phase (3) evaluation phase
Maximize trainees' identification with model
(1) model should be similar in age, gender and race (2) portray behaviors to be modeled clearly and in detail (3) rank the behaviors to be modeled in a sequence from least to most difficult, and be sure the trainees observe lots of repetitions of the behaviors being modeled (4) have several models portray the behaviors, not just one
Two perspectives of training enterprise
(1) structural level (macro) - examine issues such as aggregate level of expenditures by the various providers of training (federal, state and local governments, educational institutions, private-sector business), the degree of cooperation among the providers, incentives for providing training, who gets training the the economic impact (2) Micro level - what types of training yield positive outcomes, how to identify if training is needed and which the of training fits best, how to structure delivery of training and how to evaluate the outcomes of training
Team training
1. Conduct a team-training needs analysis - identify interdependencies among team members and the skills required to master coordination of team tasks, to identify the cognitive skills and knowledge needed to interact as a team 2. Develop training objectives that address both the task-work and teamwork skills 3. Design exercises and training events based on the objective from step 2 (team coordination, cross-training, guided team self-correction) 4. Design measure of team effectiveness based on objectives from step 2, evaluate the effectiveness of the team training, and use this information to guide future team training
Questions to access the utility or value of training
1. Have trainees achieved a specific level skill, knowledge, or performance? 2. Did change occur? 3. Is the change due to training? 4. Is the change positively related to the achievement of organizational goals? 5. Will similar changes occur with new participants in the same training program?
For maximizing positive transfer
1. Maximize the similarity between the training situation and the job situation 2. Provide trainees as much experience as possible with the tasks, concepts, or skills being taught so that they can deal with situations that do not fit textbook examples 3. Provide strong link between training content and job content 4. In team based training, transfer is maximized when teams have open, unrestricted access to information, when the membership includes diverse job functions and administrative background, when team has more members to draw upon to accomplish its activities 5. Ensure what is learned in training is used and reward on the job
3 problems new employees face
1. Problems entering the group 2. Naive expectations 3. First-job environment - socialization, first job assignment, etc.
Lessions about orientation
1. The impressions formed by new employees within their first 60 to 90 days on a job are lasting 2. Day one is crucial - new employees remember it for years 3. New employees are interested in learning about the total organization - and how they and their unit fit into the big picture 4. Give new employees major responsibility for their own orientation, through guided self-learning, but with direction support 5. Avoid information over-load - provide it in reasonable amounts 6. Recognize that community, social, and family adjustment is a critical aspect of orientation for new employees 7. Make the immediate supervisor ultimately responsible for the success of the orientation process 8. Thorough orientation is a "must" for productivity improvement
Organizational payoffs of training
1. Transfer of training (transfer climate, opportunity to perform, on-the-job behavior change) 2. On results (performance effectiveness or innovation) 3. Financial impact of the training (ROI or utility analysis)
2 principles regarding composition and management of teams
1. individual skills are necessary, but not sufficient, condition for effective team performance - individual training is still important but only a partial solution 2. Mangers of effective work groups tend to monitor the performance of their team members regular, and they provide feedback to them
Classification of training methods
1. information presentation 2. simulation methods 3. on-the-job training
Interpersonal skill objectives of training
1. promoting self-insight and environmental awareness (how a person's actions affect others and how they are viewed) 2. Improving the ability of managers and lower-level employees to make decisions and to solve job-related problems in a constructive fashion 3. Maximizing the desire to perform well
Goal theory
An individual's conscious goals or intentions regulate her or his behavior
Operations analysis
Attempts to identify the content of training - what an employee must do in order to perform competently Requires a careful examination of the work to be performed after training (1) systematic collection of information that describes how the work is done (2) determination of standards of performance of that work (3) how tasks are to be performed to meet the standards (4) the competencies necessary for effective task performance
Simulation methods
Case methods, role-playing, behavior modeling, interactive simulations for virtual teams, virtual reality, in-basket technique, and business simulations
Training and development phase
Design the environment in which to achieve objectives of program Choose methods and techniques carefully and deliver them systematically in a supportive, encouraging environment, based on sound principles of learning
Transfer of training
Extent to which competencies learned in training can be applied on the job - positive (enhances), negative (hampers performance) or neutral Long-term training probably include all 3 conditions Negative training - cost of training wasted, cost of hampered performance
Orientation
Familiarization with and adaption to a situation or an environment Most neglected part of training - and most costly
Individual analysis
Focuses on identifying employees who need training, and the types of training they need The difference between desired performance and actual performance is the individual's training need
Organization analysis
Focuses on identifying whether training supports the company's strategic direction; whether managers, peers, and employees support training activity; and what training resources are available
Team coordination
Focusing on teamwork skills that facilitate information exchange, cooperation and coordination job-related behaviors
Feedback
Form of information about one's attempts to improve Essential for learning and for trainee motivation Increasing specificity of feedback benefits the learning of responses for good performance, but may be detrimental for learning of poor performance - figuring out what went wrong on your own Provide feedback as son as possible after trainee demonstrates good performance
Demographic analysis
Helpful in determining the special needs of a particular group Needs may be specified at the organizational level, the business unit level, or at that individual level
Training trends
Hyper-competition - senior managers need to lead constant reinvention of business strategies/models Growth of labor market intermediaries - cannot assume the "workers" in an organization are all employees Collaboration across organizational and geographic boundaries - cultural and language barriers Need to maintain high level of talent - to lead innovation, refine processes, solve problems and form relationships Changes in the workforce - shifting demographics requiring unskilled and under-educationed needed to fill entry level jobs Changes in technology Teams - learn behaviors (i.e. asking for ideas, listening)
Improved performance
Implies that there have been measurable changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or social behavior
Training Paradox
Increasing an individual's employability outside the company simultaneously increases his or her job security and desire to stay with the current employers (assuming that employer creates challenging jobs and provides an exciting work environment)
Pre-employment training programs
Industry-specific, community-based coalitions Member companies contribute time, money, and expertise to designing training, and they also contribute employees to teach courses
Behavior modeling
Learning from others - identify with model because their behavior is seen as desirable and appropriate Tends to increase when the model is rewarded for behavior and when the rewards are thing the imitator would like to have
Principles that enhance learning
Learning skills: (1) Goal setting (2) Behavior modeling (3) Practice (4) Feedlack Learning facts: (1) Goal setting (2) Meaningfulness of material (3) Practice (4) Feedback
Socialization
Learning to function as a contributing member of the corporate "family" Facilitated by a will deigned orientation Increased job satisfaction and commitment, reduces turnover, and a deeper understanding of a firms goals, values history and people
Information presentation
Lectures, conferences, online courses, videos, technology-delivered instruction, interactive multimedia, intranet and internet, intelligent tutoring and organization development (systematic, long-range programs of organizational improvement)
Meaningfulness
Material that is rich in association for the trainees and is therefore easily understood by them (1) provide trainees with an overview of the material to be presented during the training - overall picture (2) Use examples, terms and concepts that are familiar to the trainees in order to clarify and reinforce key learning points - show how they can use training to do their jobs better (3) teach simpler skills before complex ones (complex are made up of simple skills)
13 benefits of training
Meta-analysyes (quantitative summaries of accumulated results across many studies) have demonstrated repeatedly that training has an overall positive effect on job-related behaviors or performance (.62 standard deviations of improvement than without training) Training may lead to greater innovation and tacit skills - informal learning Can improve technical skills Can improve strategic knowledge, that is, knowing when to apply a specific knowledge or skill Helps to maintain consistency in performance Performance consistency also results from enhancing the self-effacing or self-management of trainees Management development programs show positive effects - knowledge and changes in behavior Cross-cultural training improves expatriate adjustment and performance Leadership training seems to enhance the attitudes and performances of followers Training in team communication and team effectiveness have positive effects on team performance Positive effects on outcomes such as employee and customer satisfaction, owner/shareholder satisfaction, and productivity At the organizational level, training is a key enabler of e-commerce At the level of society, macroeconomic studies have concluded that training improve the quality of the labor force
Minimal conditions needed for effective learning to take place
Motivate the trainee to improve his or her performance Clearly illustrate desired skills Allow the trainee to participate actively Provide an opportunity to practice Provide timely feedback on the trainee's performance Provide some means for reinforcement while the trainee learns Be strutted from simple to complex tasks Be adaptable to specific problems Encourage positive transfer from the training to the job
On-the-job training methods
Orientation training, apprenticeships, on-the-job or near the job training, job rotation, committee assignments, understudy assignments, on-the-job coaching, performance management
Action learning
Participants focus on real business problems in order to learn through experience and application
Training
Planned programs designed to improve performance at the individual, group and/or organizational levels
Massed practice
Practice sessions crowded together
Individual development plans (IDPs)
Provide a blueprint for self-development (1) statements of aims - desired changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, or relationship with others (2) Definitions - description of areas of study, search, reflection or testing, including lists of activities, experiences, or questions that can help achieve these aims (3) Ideas about priorities - feelings of preference or urgency about what should be learned first
Guided team self-correction
Providing guidance to team member in reviewing team events, identifying errors and exchanging feedback and developing plans for the future
Evaluation of the orientation program
Review program at least once a year to determine if its is meeting its objectives and to identify future improvements To improve you need candid, comprehensive feedback form everyone involved in the program - roundtable discussions, in-depth interviews, questionnaires
Pygmalion effect
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Assessment phase
Serves as foundation for the entire training effort (inputs for the training/developing and evaluation phases) Purpose is to define what it is the employee should learn in relation to desired job behaviors
Practice
The active use of training content (1) active practice (2) overlearning (3) length of the practice session
Cross-training
providing exposure to and practice with other teammates' tasks, roles, and responsibilities in an effort to increases shared understanding and knowledge among team members
Distributed practice
rest internals between practice session *best Short rest periods more true for simple motor tasks\ Long rest periods more true for high complexity
Overlearning
when trainees are given the opportunity to practice far beyond the point where they have performed a task correctly several times, becomes second nature
