ch. 9

Constructed Wetlands This is another article from the former toolbase.org website. "Areas without municipal sewers normally rely on large areas of porous soils to absorb household wastewater. As residential densities increase and resultant wastewaters overload groundwater sources and aquifers, cleaner, more space-saving methods will be sought. Constructed wetlands simulate natural wastewater treatment systems, using flow beds to support water-loving plants. The roots of these plants help provide an aerobic environment to aggressively break down contaminants. Constructed wetlands can offer an affordable solution to wastewater for sites with some of the following characteristics: warm climate, failed conventional absorption field, narrow or oddly-shaped lot, high water table, low soil percolation, high organic matter/suspended solids in wastewater and enough unshaded area. Because the systems are custom designed, they are applicable for all projects ranging from a one-bedroom house to a whole town. There are different types of constructed wetlands. Subsurface flow is the most common for residential, as it keeps sewage effluent underground. Surface flow is sometimes more economical. Discharge systems allow some water to flow out of the wetland, whereas non-discharge can absorb all effluent. Different layouts include single-cell, dual-cell in series, or multiple-cell (parallel or in series). Subsurface dual-cell discharge is common for small residential applications. Wetlands can be custom designed and built, or purchased as a system. Some system components can retrofit existing septic systems. The components of a complete system include: a filtered, two-cell septic tank (or two plain tanks, or a stabilization pond); a bermed or retained cell(s) that contains an impermeable liner, a gravel substrate, mulch and water-loving plants; a distribution system including header pipe, distribution pipe within the cell, collection pipe, water level control structure, various cleanouts and possibly pumps; and a drainage field if required by regulatory agencies. Treated water is high quality and could, in the right conditions, be directly released to a river or aquifer. Low-flow plumbing fixtures can act as a "pretreatment" method to minimize required cell area. Constructed wetlands are site-specific; expert design and additional calculations to determine the economics are advised. Because year-round flow is necessary to sustain the plants, constructed wetlands are not appropriate for seasonal residences. In colder climates, larger cells are needed for freeze-prevention design, and efficiency will be compromised. On steep slopes, cut-and-fill may be necessary to keep the effluent flow slow enough for proper absorption." Let's pause here and check your understanding.

Bedrock There may be rock underground. The good news is that it would provide a stable base if you dig down to it. The bad news is that it may require expensive removal measures (blasting or jack-hammering) if it is too near the surface. Ledge rock can support up to 20 tons/SF and bedrock up to 80 tons/SF. The soil maps usually provide information on the soil composition for only 3 or 4 feet down. You may have to sink test borings to find out the depth of the bedrock. In some areas, ledge rock is obviously poking through the surface and will probably indicate a shallow soil covering. Drilled wells need to use steel or plastic casing until the drilling enters bedrock. Therefore, rock near the surface will save on drilling costs because less casing is required. A negative factor might be the presence of radon, which occurs from the decay of uranium-bearing rocks.

Coastal Barrier Resources System There are areas in the country that are affected by the Coastal Barrier Resources System. The Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) of 1982 established the John H. Chafee Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS), comprised of undeveloped coastal barriers along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Great Lakes coasts. The law encourages the conservation of hurricane-prone, biologically rich coastal barriers by restricting federal expenditures that encourage development, such as federal flood insurance through the National Flood Insurance Program. These areas can be developed, but federal taxpayers do not underwrite the investments. Properties in these areas are not eligible for FHA or VA loans. Here is the website that will give you more information and allow you to determine if there are coastal barrier areas near you

Coastal Barrier Resources System (cont.) Click on the tab at the top where it says CBRS Maps, then click on State Locator Maps. That will bring up this list of states that are affected. As you can see it affects a lot of states - not just those along the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico; but also some states around the Great Lakes. For example, here is the map of Maryland.

Site Development (cont.) Here is an excerpt from the website of the National Association Homebuilders (NAHB). "Green Development that Pays Off Designing and constructing a housing development that is not only environmentally-friendly — but also meets the requirements of the ICC 700 National Green Building Standard — doesn't have to be at the cost of profits and may even enhance the bottom line for a builder. In a webinar produced by NAHB, Tom Kopf, principal with DTJ Design, Inc., laid out objectives that will not only create a green community, but one that will rise above the competition and will be long-lasting and sustainable for its residents. Before beginning design, for a builder to fully embrace the idea of green development, Kopf recommends avoiding detrimental environmental impacts where possible, and when not possible, minimizing the unavoidable impacts and mitigating for those impacts that do occur. He then gave nine objectives that will create a community that will 'wow' future buyers. Preserving the essential site character is first and foremost on his list. "'hat made you fall in love with it in the first place?' Kopf asked. 'If you destroy that in developing the site, you've missed out on this great connection that you could have with the potential buyers.' Consider a variety of housing types and price ranges. By doing this, you not only create a dynamic and diverse community, it makes for a more stable and sustainable community that will be more immune to changes in local industries and jobs as they fluctuate with the economy. Respect the site and context of your project. 'Think beyond the boundary lines of your site when thinking about community design and development,' Kopf said. Make sure the community fits in with the greater scope of the area in which you are developing. People have different interests so providing a variety of open spaces and amenities will appeal to a larger buyer pool. Go beyond the standard golf course. One size does not fit all. 'Consider creating communities that will last a long time that allow people to age in place,' Kopf said. 'The amenities should match all of the different life cycles your buyers are looking for.' Be sure to balance vehicular and pedestrian traffic. By providing different transportation modes, including bike and pedestrian lanes in addition to roadways, it gives the residents a chance to get out and enjoy their community and connect with their neighbors.

Continuing on the trend of connection, create a heart or core to the community. Giving them a place to go, such as a community center or shopping center, will make their community more of a home rather than just a place to live. Allow for evolution of the community. Kopf added that 'most of the codes written at the behest of planning staff and city councils only preserve a community for a slice in time. Neighborhoods should be able to evolve to meet the changing needs of the community over the long-haul.' It goes without saying that the community should be economically viable to the municipalities where they are located. Along with creating walkways and a heart of a community to connect neighbors, be sure to create opportunities for the events in people's lives. People need to feel like they belong. 'This is called soft programming or soft infrastructure that brings people together,' he said. While the above achieves great community planning, don't forget about making it green. Managing storm water, saving vegetation and creating wildlife management, isn't done in addition to the objectives listed above, but should be inter-related. By reducing clearing, you can minimize low disturbance which can reduce development costs. Saving existing vegetation means you won't have to re-plant as much or re-landscape. Enhancing water filtration will help minimize erosion which helps manage storm water and provide clean water, which is definitely a green development objective. An added benefit of doing this is being able to communicate to planning staff and city planners how all of these objectives work together to create a viable and environmentally-friendly community. Development — which will benefit the city or town in increased tax revenue— can be achieved while also being able to avoid environmentally-sensitive areas, manage storm water and provide clean water while also being able to provide housing for all types of the city's residents. If these objectives are achieved, everyone wins."

Basements Probably 90% of foundations in the northern regions of the U.S. are full basements. It is estimated that about 40% leak or have water problems. However, there are large variations across the country. For example, according to the 2011 American Housing Survey, published by the U.S. Census Bureau - in the Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY Metropolitan Area, 90.2% of existing houses have either a full or partial basement. In the Phoenix-Mesa-Glendale AZ area, only 1.1% of existing homes have full or partial basements. Historically, cellars were used to store root vegetables and winter foods as well as to keep out cold winter winds under the floor boards. Then, cellars became the logical place to put furnaces and coal bins. Today, many are dry and finished into living space. End of Page

Crawl Spaces If there are soil conditions that prohibit basement building, such as ledge rock near the surface or a high water table, partial basements or crawl spaces may be utilized. Crawl spaces have shorter walls but still need to have footings that go below the frost level. Crawl spaces need moisture protection, good ventilation, and an adequate height to allow access for repairs. In cold climates, they may be heated or at least have insulation and perhaps insulated heating pipes. Moisture build-up in crawl spaces can lead to mold, condensation, insect infestation, and rot of wooden support members. For many years, conventional wisdom called for ventilation with outside air as the primary method of moisture control. In the humid Southeast, however, ventilation with outside air only makes moisture problems worse. Recent research indicates that a new type of crawl space system, with no vents to the outside, can provide better moisture control. Here's a typical crawl space in which the furnace was required to be installed horizontally.

EPA Enviromapper A very convenient and valuable tool is the EPA ENVIROMAPPER site at https://geopub.epa.gov/myem/efmap//index.html?ve=13,47.236778259277344,-122.35669708251953&pText=Fife,%20WA First you will find this screen. Type in your ZIP code or address and press ENTER. I entered my ZIP code in Colorado Springs. That brought up this screen: If you look on the left it shows how many instances of air, water, waste, land, and toxics pollution have been recognized by the EPA on that particular map. End of Page

EPA Enviromapper (cont.) Next, I zoomed in to the Chapel Hills Mall and clicked on the top to pull down a menu so I could choose to search by the type of pollutant in which I was interested. After I clicked on land pollutants on the left side, the map changed and generated 19 green dots to show the places on the map in which there had been instances of land or soil pollution reported (see the map below). Beneath the map it indicated each of the locations and had a link where you could click and "View Report." That would give you specifics about the pollution encountered. You can also investigate other sources of pollution as well. You can click multiple dots on the left and be shown all types of pollution at once on the same map. Go into the site and check out your own local area. It would be a good idea to refer to the Enviromapper site every time you perform an appraisal of either vacant land or improved properties. This becomes even more important with commercial or industrial appraisals. It might also be useful to be able to report in your appraisal, that according to the EPA, there are no indications of soil or water pollution near the subject of your appraisal. End of Page

Soil Maps Online Soil maps are available on the Internet and more are being added all the time. Web Soil Survey (WSS) provides soil data and information produced by the National Cooperative Soil Survey. It is operated by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Services (NRCS) and provides access to the largest natural resource information system in the world. NRCS has soil maps and data available online for more than 95 percent of the nation's counties and anticipated having 100 percent in the near future. The site is updated and maintained online as the authoritative online source of soil survey information.

Expansive Soils In some parts of the country, particularly the Southwest and the Dakotas, certain soils are known as expansive soils. These soils generally have high clay content. They swell when moisture is absorbed and shrink when it dries. This can cause cracking of sidewalks, driveways, patios, and even house and foundation walls. Many times, the expansive soil is located under a layer of topsoil and can be identified only by drilling test holes. Lab testing is necessary to determine the swell potential. If identified, certain construction measures can be employed to help with water drainage around the structure. Basements may require additional perimeter drains and sump pumps to evacuate water collected from the perimeter drains during periods of seasonal wetness. The first line of defense is to excavate for the foundation and then if expansive soils exist, overexcavation may be carried on for an additional 3 to 10 feet deeper. Next, new fill is added composed of non-expansive soils or a sandy mix of engineered soil and compacted under controlled moisture and density conditions. Drilled pier foundations may be employed in severe swell situations along with buttresses to give lateral support to the foundation walls.

Water Pollution Water pollution can happen from any of the sources that we mentioned when we discussed soil pollution. It can occur from surface runoff of agricultural lands or can occur from pollutants seeping through the ground and ultimately entering the water supply underground. It is perhaps more insidious, because it may spread long distances underground from its source and the source may be hard to identify. Even if you can identify the source of the pollution it may be beyond your control to stop it. I appraised several properties whose wells became polluted from leaking underground fuel tanks at an abandoned service station more than 1,500 feet away. It finally took some action by the state to force a cleanup and drill new, much deeper, wells at the affected sites. Of course, water pollution can be detected by water tests. Remediation can be expensive and in some cases, water pollution is virtually impossible to cure.

Flood Plain All or part of a property may lie in a designated flood plain. This will not necessarily prohibit development, but it may make it more expensive. The site may have to be filled or protected with drainage systems, walls, or dikes. Existing residential properties in a designated Flood Hazard Area (FEMA Zones A and V) simply require flood insurance. Some municipalities prohibit the net importation of fill. They are afraid of adverse effects on other property owners caused by raising the flood plain and increasing flooding on adjacent properties. The water has to go somewhere, and filling a site might reduce the area's capacity to absorb flood waters. A "balanced cut and fill" technique might be required. This is where existing soil is redistributed on-site, deepening some flood plain areas while raising others up high and dry. You will have to investigate the situation and study the maps. It may be that just a portion of the site is in the flood hazard area, and this may not be where the improvements are located. Some municipalities may prohibit or restrict new construction in a flood hazard area. FHA will not loan on new construction that is in a designated flood hazard area. Flood maps are available directly from FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), the government agency that created the maps). They can be purchased as paper maps; FEMA is in the process of making digital maps available across the country. Check it out at www.fema.gov. There are also private sources through which you may purchase flood maps. Some of these are available through and integrated with various software companies. End of Page

Let's first address this term here, as we begin site development, because it will re-occur all through the building process. Sustainability is defined as: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. (Bruntland Commission Report to the United Nations, 1987) In green design and construction, the practice of developing new structures and renovating existing structures using equipment, materials, and techniques that help achieve a long-term balance between extraction and renewal and between environmental inputs and outputs, causing no overall net environmental burden or deficit. 1 Sustainability is the basis for what is commonly called green building.

Green Building Green building is defined as: The practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's lifecycle from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green building is also known as sustainable or high-performance building. (EPA) Green building certifications vary widely in the rating requirements and are not all equal in green features.1 It all starts with the development of the site.

Trees The presence or absence of trees can make a value difference. If a lot is completely bare of trees it may be easier to develop. It costs a lot to cut down trees and grub out the roots. But then you may have to incur some landscaping fees to plant some trees. It will depend on market preferences. If you are where there are very few trees and that is the norm - then a site with a few trees will be unremarkable and it will not become a value issue. However, if one site in that area is heavily wooded, it may be more desirable. Having trees around is becoming more of an issue under the new concepts of green building. Trees have a measurable effect on keeping properties cooler in the summertime by providing shade and absorbing moisture in the air. They also absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. Houses in the south and west can be decidedly easier to cool if there are shade trees nearby. Trees in urban areas are becoming more desirable as well. They help combat the heat island effect in urban areas that is caused by the radiational effect of heat generated by parking lots and roofs. It has been demonstrated that shade can bring down the ambient air temperatures by as much as 10 degrees. End of Page

Legal Restrictions You need to investigate possible legal restrictions as well. Check the local zoning ordinance. There may be setback requirements on the front, rear, and sides that will restrict where you may place the building on the site. You may be left with only bad terrain that could render a parcel un-buildable. There may be height restrictions or view restrictions. You may not be able to build a structure higher than 2 stories, or 30 feet. You may not be able to block the view of a neighbor. These restrictions may come from zoning ordinances or may be encompassed in deed restrictions or subdivision regulations. There may be required distances between the well and septic system; most codes call for at least 100 feet. FHA requires that the well be 50 feet from the septic tank, 100 feet from the drain field, and at least 10 feet from a property line. There may be private deed restrictions that restrict or limit the use of the property. There may be subdivision or project covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&Rs) that affect what may or may not be constructed on a site. Perhaps you can build only structures of 2,000 square feet or more. Maybe outbuildings are prohibited or you must have a minimum of a two-car garage. Perhaps the site is part of a development which has a homeowners' association (HOA). The HOA may dictate such things as building styles or even colors. Also, HOA fees will be charged. Perhaps there are common areas or recreation facilities under the HOA. The subject site may be subject to conservation easements, or rights of way, or other types of easements or licenses.

Footings Footings need to be at least a foot below average frost penetration levels. Frost levels vary all over the country from zero in Key West to several feet in Lake Placid. They need to be on undisturbed, unfilled ground. Footings should be at least twice as wide as the foundation wall and as deep as the wall is wide. Depending on the soil conditions and local codes, they may or may not have metal reinforcing rods (rebar

New Forms From the former toolbase.org website: "There are new alternatives to conventional forming methods for concrete footings and piers that are quicker and less expensive. For point footings, there are two approaches: rigid plastic footing forms, and a fabric 'bag' footing form. For continuous strip footings there is a specialized fabric form held in place by a temporary structural system. Plastic rigid footing forms differ mostly in their shape, though there are variable sizes available, as well. Some are similar to the conventional block shape, while others are bell shaped with a round base. They have a circular opening on top to accept the concrete as well as to connect to the construction tubes above. Rigid footing forms have ribs to provide extra strength, and some have small holes to release air during the pour. Fabric 'bag' footing forms are exactly what their name implies. They are flexible fabric sacks with a circular hole on top into which concrete is placed. The shape of the fabric form approximates a standard rectangular footing, but all edges are rounded with bowed sides, and the form may be installed on and conform to uneven ground. For footings that require rebar reinforcing, there is a form sack which has a zipper to open the top of the 'bag' enough to get the reinforcing rods inside the fabric form before placing the concrete. Also, there is a foundation pier product developed specifically for manufactured housing that uses footing form bags as a key part of its design. Fabric strip footing forms can be used for level and step footings, as well as for deep footings, and, they can be installed over uneven ground or rock, if structurally acceptable to do so. A temporary simple form must be built to which the fabric attaches to hold its shape while the concrete cures. This is made with a board for each side that defines the top edge of the form to which the fabric attaches, held at the required height and width by a special 'yoke' support system. Long boards that hold the fabric in place must be stabilized laterally. This is achieved by regularly spaced metal stakes pounded into the ground along either side of the form. Once the concrete sets, the rigid formwork may be removed and reused, while the fabric form remains in place."

Foundation Types Here are national figures for different types of new construction foundations over the last 30 years. Year 1990 2000 2005 2012 Full or Partial Basement 38% 37% 31% 30% Slab 40% 46% 53% 54% Crawl Space 21% 17% 16% 16% There has been a steady decline in basements. The percentage of slabs has increased and the percentage of crawl spaces has declined a little and stabilized. Again, there are regional variations with most homes with basements being built in the North and most homes with slabs being built in the South and West.

Perimeter Drainage It is important to drain water away from the house so it doesn't lie against the foundation and ultimately seep in. Drains made of 4-inch perforated plastic pipe are laid outside and below the level of the footings. They are laid in crushed stone and covered with a fabric filter to keep dirt from clogging the pipes. The lines must be carefully graded away from the house and continue for a reasonable distance. Any surface water that finds its way down to the foundation level will seep into the pipes and be carried away by gravity.

Site Selection Sites are connected with the community around them. They are inextricably linked to the existing and planned infrastructure. In appraisal courses, we always talk about sites as being prisoners of their environment. We can't pick them up and move them. We need to be very aware of the tangible and intangible influences that surround a site. Sites are impacted by the physical and environmental factors that adjoin them and that are nearby. These factors could include: Climate Exposure Access Transportation systems Traffic Utilities Surrounding land use and density Natural barriers to future development Views

Site Characteristics Physical characteristics of the site itself, such as shape and configuration, may have substantial impacts of their desirability, and hence value. Cul-de-sac sites minimize traffic and maximize backyard privacy. They can sell for considerably more than interior lots; even though their shapes tend to be irregular. Corner sites for residential properties are generally less desirable. You have traffic on two sides and your backyard is exposed to more sight lines. Also, some special assessment districts are created for the installation of sidewalks, water and sewer lines, or street lights. In many cases, the fees are based on the amount of frontage you have, so the owner of a corner lot would pay more. Locational characteristics have impact as well. Sites with higher elevations and views may be more valuable. On the other hand, they may lead to more difficult access in wintertime. Sites near or fronting water can enjoy large premiums. Of course, on the flip side, waterfront sites may be prone to flooding.

Site What do we mean by a site? Let's start with the definition of land. Land is defined as: In law, the solid surface on the earth, as distinguished from water. One of the four agents of production in economic theory.1 An old definition of land from the Fifth Edition of The Dictionary of Real Estate Appraisal is little more descriptive: The earth's surface, both land and water, and anything that is attached to it whether by the course of nature or human hands; all natural resources in their original state, e.g., mineral deposits, wildlife, timber, fish, water, coal deposits, soil. Site is defined as: Improved land or lot in a finished state so that it is ready to be used for a specific purpose.2 So, land is the physical thing, in its raw state. Once someone decides to improve it to the extent necessary to support building improvements, it becomes a site. Unfortunately, many times people use the terms interchangeably; but land and sites are quite different. The costs and values of sites can vary substantially from undeveloped, or raw, land.

Site Improvements Let's look at another definition. Site improvements are defined as: Improvements on and off a site that make it suitable for its intended use or development. On-site improvements include grading, landscaping, paving, and utility hookups; off-site improvements include streets, curbs, sidewalks, drains, and connecting utility lines.1 So, site improvements are what make the difference between a parcel of land and a site. The improvements necessary to convert land to a site could also include: Alleys Gutters Wells Septic systems Fill Tree removal On site drainage systems Site plans Site approval Zoning changes Permits

Privacy Areas We need to plan ahead to include areas for outdoor activities. We should consider three potential separate zones: A private area for family activities such as a pool, patio, deck, play areas such as swing sets, horseshoe pits, etc. This is usually in the rear yard and may be fenced in or screened with shrubbery or trees. A public area, usually in the front yard which contains the guest entrance and driveway. A service area that allows for a semi-public area for deliveries, trash removal, meter readers, fuel trucks, mail delivery, etc. Sometimes it's hard to find privacy areas in your back yard.

Site Preparation After all the planning is done and we figure out the perfect spot to place the house on the site, there are still some things to be accomplished before the excavator arrives. Some of the things involved are physical in nature and some are legal. Some physical matters that need to be addressed include clearing the building site of rocks, trees and stumps, and any debris. Then the property needs to be rough graded. The topsoil should be stripped and saved to put back later. The topsoil pile will need to be compacted by a bulldozer or another piece of heavy equipment to keep the topsoil from washing or blowing away.

Impact Fees In recent years many communities have found themselves in a bind. They have increasing infrastructure needs and demands and diminishing income from taxes, grants and other sources. This has resulted in a new strategy of charging impact fees to developers, to help defray the expenses of additional infrastructure that the municipalities will have to maintain. Impact fees were addressed on the previous page. This topic is addressed at length in a publication from the NAHB, entitled Impact Fee Handbook. Here are some excerpts: "Generally, impact fees are charges levied against new development in order to generate revenue for the purpose of funding capital improvements necessitated by that development. Impact fees should not be confused with subdivision exactions that require developers either to 'dedicate' land for public use or contribute cash in lieu of land for the purchase of land or facilities perceived to be necessary by local governments. As a fundamental tool, impact fees are broader and more flexible than subdivision exactions. Impact fees can be levied on various types of development, including subdivision, condominium, commercial, and industrial projects. Unlike subdivision exactions, impact fees can be used to fund the construction of offsite facilities. Typically, impact fees are: levied on an 'up-front' or 'front-end' basis, usually at the time of building permit issuance or subdivision approval; dedicated to a specific public use, such as a transportation facilities, sewer facilities, water facilities, or parks and recreation facilities, etc.; calculated on the basis of the number of residents or bedrooms in a dwelling, the square footage of a building, the linear footage of the front property line, or as a flat fee per unit or building lot, or some other formulation; and, prescribed by ordinance, although the dollar amount may or may not be specified. Government has long imposed narrower charges for a variety of onsite capital improvements, including sewer and water hookups, storm water management facilities, and street and sidewalk construction. More recently, though, communities have levied impact fees on developers for a number of offsite improvements such as the development of community-wide recreational facilities, the construction of highway segments, or the expansion of centralized wastewater treatment plants. Often the need for these services and facilities is only indirectly attributed to a specific subdivision or project, giving rise to developer objections to funding such general improvements." End of Page

Smart Growth In another publication by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) entitled "Smart Growth, Smart Choice" they talked about "Smart Codes" and had this to say: "THE FOLLOWING ARE STEPS that local jurisdictions can take to ensure that their land use and development codes help them achieve smart growth. Smart codes begin with a good comprehensive plan that includes housing, economic development, land use and transportation elements and ensures affordability and availability of housing. Other aspects of smart codes: Link implementing regulations to plan Update and evaluate plans and regulations regularly Use a land market monitoring/buildable lot inventory approach Allow a mix of land uses, including open space Allow variety and mix of housing types, including:Attached/multifamilySmall lotManufactured homes/modularAccessory unitsLive-work unitsAccessible units Allow innovation and flexibility in site planning and design including:PUD (planned unit development)ClusteringSmall lotsHigher densityTND (traditional neighborhood development/design) optionZero lot lineReasonable street widthsStreet connectivityAlleysShared parking, accessSetback requirementsAlternative stormwater and septic system approachesAltered utility installationGreen development Allow multiple transportation options Allow and encourage infill and redevelopment Offer incentives for providing amenities:Density bonusesDensity transfersTax creditsReduced fees/rebates Plan for and fund infrastructure/capital improvement program Use fair and broad-based funding mechanisms" A check of your understanding is up next.

Topography (cont.) Here is an example of a sloping lot where you could cut part of the slope, level the area around the house and use the excavated part to fill in the lower side of the house. The house would sit on undisturbed ground. A site may be relatively level but if it is much above or below the road level, it will require work for adequate access. There may be a steep driveway or switchbacks required. There may be steep or long sets of steps to walk up or down to the house.

Soil Conditions The bearing capacity of the soil itself is important. This can vary from 1 to 8 tons per square foot. If the soil is sandy or not so strong, wider footings and additional supports such as pilings may be required. Soils lose strength in proportion to their water content. Some soils may be unstable, such as a peat bog, or subject to slippage, such as landslides or sink holes. The composition of the soil itself can vary dramatically. It can be sampled by test borings or you may refer to soil maps. Soil maps are available at what used to be known as Soil Conservation Service or Agricultural Extension offices. They are published FREE by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in a book for each county. The USDA Soil Conservation Service is now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service. The maps show soil types superimposed over black-and-white aerial photographs of the county. These books provide charts and other information on production capabilities for agriculture & forestry. They also contain information on soils' capability for structural support-building foundations and for suitability for septic systems. They are based on aerial mapping rather than site-specific soil testing, and thus are considered a guide rather than the last word. However, they can be very helpful for general research.

Concrete Reinforcement The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) formerly operated a website called toolbase.org. It provided information on new and emerging building technologies. This website is no longer operational, but some of the articles from this site are of interest. This one is about new ways to reinforce concrete. "Reinforcing concrete to keep it from cracking is nothing new -- even the earliest civilizations used natural fibers to inhibit cracking in masonry structures. Today, synthetic-fiber reinforcement is available to reinforce non-structural concrete applications with superior results. Currently, the most widely-accepted form of reinforcement is welded-wire fabric (WWF), a mesh of steel wires that is placed in concrete. However, synthetic-fiber reinforcement avoids the increased labor costs and difficulty in placement that are associated with WWF. Synthetic-fiber reinforcement prevents cracks in concrete, unlike WWF, which controls crack width -- cracks actually need to occur before the WWF goes to work. Small-diameter synthetic fibers (nylon, glass, steel or polypropylene) are now being added to concrete to reduce shrinkage cracking by more than 80% according to independent lab tests. Reducing cracks improves concrete impermeability, increases its toughness and long-term weatherability, and can reduce callbacks in concrete slab floors, decks, driveways, and walks. According to fiber manufacturers, the placement, curing, or finish characteristics of the concrete are not affected by the addition of fibrous reinforcement. Larger-diameter synthetic fibers (steel or polyolefin), added at higher content by volume (0.5% to 1.5% respectively), also enhance hardened flexural strength, but at increased cost." Get ready for another check of your understanding.

Soil Pollution The soil itself can become polluted by any number of man made products (and a few natural causes). Pollution may emanate from: Chemical spills Oil spills Underground storage tanks Industrial wastes Manufacturing wastes Mining activities Wastes from operations such as dry cleaners, car washes, and restaurants Airports and military installations Landfills Pesticides Agricultural fertilizers, weed killers, and insect control Acid rain Radioactive fallout The list could go on and on! Even relatively benign products can be hazardous if they become concentrated. If soil pollution is suspected from a visual inspection (vegetation is dying, etc.) then it would be wise to note that and condition your appraised value on an engineering inspection of the soil conditions. This certainly is important on a residential site but probably more important on a commercial or industrial site. There may a history of operations on the site would lead to strong suspicions that there may be soil pollution to some extent and it may be more expensive to remediate it - if remediation is even possible.

Utilities The presence or absence of municipal utilities at a site may have a major impact on value. A lot with a private well or septic system should have a higher value than one without any. What does it cost to drill a well today? Obviously, it will depend on many factors such as the depth of the water table and how much casing is required. But certainly, in most cases, a well will cost at least $4,000; including the pump, electrical service, etc. It may be much more. Some wells must be drilled to depths of 1,000 feet or greater. A typical septic system might cost in the range of $5,000-$10,000. If the soil conditions are such that an above ground mound system is required, it can easily exceed $20,000. Therefore, a lot with a well and/or septic system certainly should be worth more than one without. A person buying such a lot will be saved the time and expense of developing water and sewage sources before the lot becomes buildable. Some zoning ordinances stipulate different lot sizes depending upon whether or not municipal utilities are available. In other words, you may have to have a minimum one half acre lot size if the site is served by municipal sewer; whereas, a full acre may be required if septic systems are used. In some areas, utilities may be physically present in a neighborhood but it may not be possible to tap into them as they are at capacity. Construction has been halted in some municipalities and moratoriums put in place until existing facilities can be expanded. In other locales, there may be municipal or private utility companies that offer service but have poor reputations due to excessive costs, poor quality, or inadequate service. End of Page

Surrounding Land Use and Density The nature and the character of the existing surrounding land use may have an impact on the value of a particular land parcel. Is the surrounding land use agricultural? Or commercial? If the surrounding land use is residential, is it primarily older housing stock or new? What is the price range? How well maintained are the dwellings? Is it mostly attached housing? Is the surrounding land use primarily recreational? Is the property located in the mountains, near state parks, by several golf courses, or near the ocean? What is the average density of the area? Are residential units packed in at the rate of 4 per acre? Or do most people have 5-acre lots? Does the surrounding area consist of mostly 100-acre farms? Or 5,000-acre ranches? What percent of the land is built up? Are there any natural barriers to future development? Is the subject property and/or neighborhood hemmed in by steep mountains, or bayous, or a mile-wide river? What has been the direction of growth in the recent past? Is it projected to continue that way? What are the new hot areas for subdivision? Are there any new highways planned nearby? What is the attitude of the local government towards economic expansion? Are they pro-business?

Site Preparation A sub-base for the driveway and parking area needs to be installed - at least sufficient to support a concrete truck and building material delivery trucks. During the beginning construction process, a plan should be developed to prevent loss of soil through stormwater or wind erosion. It is also important to prevent sedimentation in streams or stormwater systems. A good plan will also help reduce air pollution by reducing the amount of dust in the air. Controls could include: Temporary seeding Covering with mulch Silt fences Hay bales Ditches and swales Sediment or catchment basins Terraces Retaining walls Plantings Storm drains A temporary "service drop" needs to be arranged from the power company and an electrician dispatched to set the meter and temporary power panel. Power will be required as soon as actual construction starts. Another good idea is to run water and telephone lines to the site, if possible. A drainage ditch should be dug leading away from the foundation area to evacuate any water that may accumulate. Batter boards and strings need to be erected for the exact foundation layout. A surveyor or the contractor will establish the exact corners and make sure the house is "square."

The foundation system serves three purposes. It distributes the weight of the building over the ground, anchors the building to the ground, and protects the wood in the house structure from decay and insect attack. It is made up of three components: The soil bed Footings Foundation wall or piers A stable foundation system depends primarily on proper footing depth and good drainage. Footings typically consist of concrete poured inside wooden or plastic forms. Obviously, it is important that they are level.

Green Development Incentives Here are more excerpts from another article from the NAHB website. "Everyone responds better to encouragement rather than ultimatums, and developers are no different. For this reason, incentives typically produce a better response and result than mandates. In addition, regulations and mandates are typically protective, not progressive, more focused on 'thou shalt not' instead of fostering new approaches and allowing the flexibility to respond to unique conditions locally and on a specific site. Incentives are more likely to spur creative solutions. In addition, green building and development are about managing the interface between humans and the land, not simply restoring as much as possible when the face of the land is changed. They are about conservation, not simply preservation. Managing and optimizing resources by its very nature requires creativity, flexibility, and innovation, not a one-size-fits-all approach that is not adaptable to local conditions or over time. With that in mind, there are various types of incentives communities can and should offer to encourage green development. Reduced Impact Fees Impact fees are typically calculated based on particular assumptions about per capita or household water and sewer consumption. Yet green homes that use more water efficient plumbing and irrigation fixtures or systems will place less of a burden on a community's water and sewer supply systems. Thus, communities should reduce impact fees for green developments and base their fees on real numbers for those developments rather than average per capita assumptions. Green development site layouts may also result in reduced width streets as well as fewer lineal miles of streets, which reduces both initial pavement costs as well as maintenance costs over time. Road impact fees as well as maintenance cost provisions in the performance improvement guarantees communities impose on developers could be adjusted accordingly. Some communities also impose stormwater management fees. Yet through a variety of means, including provision of more trees and vegetation and pervious area; the use of natural stormwater management approaches; and reduced street widths as well as lineal feet of roads, for example, green developments are likely to produce far less run-off than a conventional development. Reduced or Waived Development Standards

The many regulations affecting how development occurs can also work against each other from a green development perspective, so communities should also be encouraged to take a fresh look at these potential conflicts as a means of encouraging green development. NAHB's publication, Building Greener Neighborhoods: Trees as Part of the Plan (out of print but available as a downloadable pdf from Builder Books), describes some of these trade-offs in greater detail, but a few key examples include large building pad setback, excessive maximum grade, and excessive street pavement and right-of-way width requirements that essentially force developers to disturb and clear more of a site than necessary. This not only increases soil erosion through disruption of natural slope but results in loss of vegetation as well. Many communities inadvertently cause tree loss through such standards and then impose a tree replacement standard on the developer as well, which is both inefficient as well as costly and produces a less green site in the end. Allowing tighter building pad setbacks, steeper natural grades, reduced street right-of way and pavement width, open section (curb-less) roadways and drainage swales, cluster development by right, and alternate utility installation arrangements (front versus back, alternating sideyards, common trenching, etc.) are some of the many ways communities can offer incentives through their standards. Density Bonuses Land costs are a large component of the cost of a finished home in most markets today, so anything that helps bring down the land cost is a powerful incentive for developers that also benefits homebuyers as well as the community at large. Density bonuses are not new and have been widely used by local governments to spur developers to accomplish a variety of public benefits and objectives. They can also be used in conjunction with cluster development to foster provision of more open space or in conjunction with transit oriented development overlay zones to build the density necessary to support bus and rail transit options. Expedited Permitting There are also costs associated with the increasingly complex, lengthy, and uncertain development approval process in place in most communities today. These costs can affect the very viability of a development if they go on too long and climb too high, so any improvements here are also very meaningful for developers. There is a wide body of literature available to communities on options for streamlining and expediting approvals, including an NAHB Smart Codes/Smart Process checklist that summarizes many of these concepts and sources."

Slab-on-Grade In most of the South and Southwest, the monolithic slab-on-grade foundation is preferred over basements or crawl spaces. It is the quickest and cheapest way to construct a foundation. It also is resistant to termites. Frost heaving is not a consideration. The disadvantages are the lack of access from below for utility lines, the potential for large heat losses, and a low elevation that exposes the building to flood damage. It is essentially one giant footing so the weight is distributed over its entire surface. A standard slab is only 4 inches thick but then is thickened an extra eight inches on the edges and wherever concentrated loads will occur; such as under a partition, bearing post, or chimney. Before the slab is poured, the soil base must be leveled and prepared. The outer edge of the slab is formed up with boards, just as for a footing. A poly vapor barrier is laid on the ground and wire mesh reinforcement added.

The mechanicals must be carefully planned and installed before the slab is poured. Water and electrical lines may be run through plastic conduit to facilitate future replacement. The perimeter should be insulated with rigid insulation for at least two feet from the edge. Some of the heat loss in a building occurs out through the slab. Also, you need to guard against freezing of pipes in the slab. The interior of the perimeter walls will be filled with compacted gravel and/or sand, depending on the nature of the soil. Monolithic slab-on-grade construction is not common in the north because the cost savings are limited because you must excavate and pour a frost wall that goes below the frost line.

Site Planning There are lots of decisions you need to make before you even think about breaking ground. You get only one chance to set the building on a site - one chance to get it in the right place. If a structure is misplaced on a site (and that's fairly common) it will hinder the property for the rest of its life. One basic item is the direction of the sun. To take advantage of the sun, the lot should ideally be sloped to the southeast. South is good, east is better than west, and you should avoid a north slope. Take advantage of the way the sun travels seasonally. Overhangs can protect windows when the sun is high and hot in the summer and allow the winter sun to come in when it is lower in the sky. The house itself can be oriented to take advantage of the sun. In northern climates, south-facing windows can give a lot of solar gain in the winter and north-facing windows should be minimized. It doesn't have to face true south. If it faces within 25 degrees either side of true south, it will still receive 85% to 95% of available solar energy. Deciduous trees may be employed on the south to shade that side in the summer and let the sun through in the winter. Of course, in southern climates, the south side should be protected from the sun. The west side should employ plantings or screens such as trellises or overhangs to protect against the hot afternoon sun. The prevailing wind patterns should also be studied. In many areas, the wind is primarily from the west so the north and west sides should be screened if possible. This can be accomplished with plantings or perhaps by taking advantage of a hill or slope on that side. In warmer areas, the south and west sides should be left open to take advantage of cooling breezes. These little touches can make a big difference. A check of your understanding is next. En

Topography The slope or topography is also an important issue. Generally speaking, the easiest site to build on is a level one, but then you have to build in drainage. This may consist of open, above ground swales or ditches or it may involve underground drainage systems. The builder must do whatever is necessary to direct surface water away from the house, but at the same time must be careful in directing water away as it could be directed onto neighboring properties and cause damage. A gently rolling lot is preferable. You can take advantage, perhaps, of building on a high spot or move some dirt around to re-grade, if necessary. Sloping lots may involve extensive re-grading, filling, terracing and retaining walls. If it is quite steep, there may be extensive runoff after storms and little usable land around the house for lawns and entertaining. This may be compensated for with decking. Don't make this mistake!

Access Access to a property may be a critical issue. Many properties are located on a highway that is owned and maintained by a town, city, county, or state. Then access is not a problem and we don't think much about it one way or the other. However, if the only access to the property is by a private road or a right of way, then the question of access becomes more important. It will take some research on your part to find out the details. If the only access is by a private road it may diminish the value of the property and limit any future development. Who maintains the road? Is there a shared maintenance agreement? If it is a right of way, is it recorded? The use of a property or the projected use needs to be considered. A vacation property located on a winding or steep road and distant from conveniences and facilities may be acceptable. But a development of lots to be occupied by commuters to a nearby metropolitan area needs to be convenient to major arteries. In retail, commercial, and office properties, access c

Traffic Traffic can be a good thing or a bad thing. In commercial properties one of the more important ingredients in value is the amount of traffic or the number of vehicles or pedestrians that go past a site every day. When comparing commercial sites, investors many times will gather official traffic counts from governmental agencies such as Departments of Transportation. It is a critical factor to consider when selecting a site for a fast food franchise or convenience store. On the other hand, traffic can be a strong detrimental factor in residential properties. Developers spend time and effort in designing new subdivisions with winding streets, cul-de-sacs, and dead ends to eliminate through traffic. Of course, traffic includes not just street traffic, but rail and air as well. And street traffic includes trucks as well as cars. The traffic does not have to be directly in front of a property or even within sight to create a noise problem.

Legal Restrictions (cont.) Here is a site plan for a new house. Note the setbacks on each side, front, and rear. Also, in the bottom left corner it shows a public utility easement that says it will be vacated. Has it been? Along the rear line is a public utility and drainage easement. Along the front is another public utility and drainage easement. All these factors sure influence the placement of the house on the lot. They may also dictate the size and shape of the house as well. Also, this house is part of a development which has a homeowner's association (HOA). In this particular section of the development, according to the covenants, only certain models were approved for construction. All have to have the exact same roof tiles and the exteriors have to have stucco exteriors in one of four colors. Your color has to be different than the ones on either side of you.

View Obviously, we like to maximize the view from the dwelling, if possible. It can be just as important to minimize any views of negative factors on the property, or within sight of the property. This must be balanced with other considerations such as topography, sun exposure, wind exposure, etc. It may not be possible to satisfy all the criteria, and choices may have to be made. It may be that the view of the lake or the mountains is the most critical issue and all other considerations will have to be sacrificed. Some developments are able to price their lots with some lots having premiums because they have an outstanding view, topography, or cul-de-sac location. Perhaps the lot adjoins a golf course or water feature. This lot had a $30,000 lot premium for the view and the topography that allowed for a walkout basement.

Drainage The drainage capacity of the soil can be a crucial factor. Loamy soil and sloping sites tend to be well drained. Soil high in clay content, sites with high water tables or underlying rock tend to not be well drained. The drainage capacity can generally be determined by consulting soils maps. For more site-specific information, percolation tests can be performed. In percolation tests, the person conducting the test pours water into a hole, and stands there and times how long it takes for the water to drain away. In well-drained soil the water level will go down at a rate of about 1 inch an hour. The results of the "perc" test will determine if there is suitable drainage as well as the size of the drain field that will be required for a septic system. In many rural areas, "perc" tests have to be done before a building permit may be issued. If the drainage capacity of the soil is insufficient, other arrangements may have to be made. Above-ground or "mound" systems may be installed. A mound of varying size gravels and sands is piled up to create a favorable environment and then the drain field lines are laid in that. It may also require a pump to pump the sewage up hill to the mound.

Water Tables Some areas may have a low water table, which will mean deeper wells and perhaps seasonal water shortages. Some areas have a high water table where the water is near the surface of the ground. This makes it easier to drill for water but may lead to chronic moisture problems in a basement or crawl space. Local well drillers may be able to give estimates of typical water depths in an area. The depth of the water table may also have an effect on possible underground contamination. Groundwater pollution or contamination may be filtered out as water seeps down through the ground naturally. If a water table is high, it may be more susceptible to groundwater contamination from surface pollutants such as chemicals or even fertilizers.

Wetlands Wetlands have been shown to be beneficial as: Flood buffers Water reclamation Wildlife habitat Fisheries Erosion resistance Recreational benefits Development buffers Wetlands help improve water quality. They may remove or reduce nitrogen, phosphates, suspended solids, metals, and pathogens. We need to investigate whether or not a property is in or adjacent to designated wetland areas. Prior to the 1970s, wetlands were considered nuisances and breeding grounds for insects. The federal government used low interest loans and subsidies to encourage the drainage and conversion of wetlands to other uses. As of 1997, 117 million of the nation's 221 million acres of wetlands were lost. 98% were freshwater wetlands such as swamps, ponds, lakes, and rivers. In the 1970s, the federal government did a 180 degree turn and started actively protecting and conserving wetlands for the future. Several years later, President George H.W. Bush signed an executive order calling for a "no net loss" goal. The Army Corps of Engineers was authorized to administer the policy and require a nationwide permit (NWP) be obtained before any wetlands are filled or drained. In March 2002, thresholds for issuing permits were stiffened. NWPs are now required for projects impacting as little as ½ acre of wetlands and notification to the Corps is required for an impact as low as one-tenth of an acre (0.1 acre). In some situations, a portion of a wetland may be filled if an equal amount of new wetlands is created elsewhere. There may be a low area in a strategic part of a site. Perhaps it is swampy along the front where you must enter the property. Perhaps it could be filled and drained there and then another low lying area dredged out in a rear corner. You can study maps from local agencies such as town, county, or state agencies that designate and control wetlands. Sometimes they are overlapping in their jurisdiction. There is a website of the National Wetlands Inventory that covers all wetland designations. It provides one-stop shopping -- a place to find all wetland areas. Check back periodically as they do change over time. Some areas have been designated as wetlands where the average rainfall is less than 4 inches per year. Some of the criteria for designation are the type of flora and fauna that live there.

Wetlands Inventory Click here to investigate this site. Click on the Wetlands Mapper on the left side once you have opened the link and follow directions there. See what wetlands are in your area.