ch.1 (Essay)
Describe the contributions and limitations of behaviorism and social learning theory to the scientific study of human development.
According to behaviorism, directly observable events—stimuli and responses—are the appropriate focus of study. Traditional behaviorists use classical and operant conditioning to mold children's behavior. The most influential kind of social learning theory emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development. The most recent version of the theory places such strong emphasis on how children think about themselves and other people that it is called a social-cognitive approach. Behaviorism and social learning theory have had a major impact on practices with children. Applied behavior analysis consists of observations of relationships between behavior and environmental events, followed by systematic changes in those events based on procedures of conditioning and modeling. The goal is to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses. It has been used to relieve a wide range of difficulties in children and adults, ranging from poor time management and unwanted habits to serious problems such as language delays, persistent aggression, and extreme fears. Nevertheless, many theorists believe that behaviorism and social learning theory offer too narrow a view of important environmental influences, which extend beyond immediate reinforcement, punishment, and modeled behaviors to children's rich physical and social worlds. Behaviorism and social learning theory have also been criticized for underestimating children's contributions to their own development.
Describe some problems that investigators face in conducting longitudinal research.
Despite their strengths, longitudinal investigations pose a number of problems. For example, biased sampling—the failure to enlist participants who adequately represent the population of interest—is a common problem. People who willingly participate in research that requires them to be observed and tested over many years are likely to have distinctive characteristics, such as a special appreciation for the scientific value of research. Furthermore, longitudinal samples generally become more biased as the investigation proceeds because of selective attrition. Participants may move away or drop out of the study for other reasons, and the ones who remain are likely to differ in important ways from the ones who do not continue. Also, from repeated study, people may become "test-wise." Their performance may improve as a result of practice effects—better test-taking skills and increased familiarity with the test—not because of factors commonly associated with development. Finally, the most widely discussed threat to the accuracy of longitudinal findings is cultural-historical change, commonly called cohort effects. Longitudinal studies examine the development of cohorts—children born at the same time, who are influenced by particular cultural and historical conditions. Results based on one cohort may not apply to children developing at other times.
Discuss ecological systems theory, and describe each level of the environment.
Ecological systems theory views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Since the child's biologically influenced dispositions join with environmental forces to mold development, Urie Bronfenbrenner characterized his perspective as a bioecological model. He envisioned the environment as a series of interrelated, nested structures that form a complex functioning whole, or system. The microsystem concerns relations between the child and the immediate environment; the mesosytem includes connections among immediate settings; the exosystem includes social settings that affect but do not contain the child; and the macrosystem consists of the values, laws, customs, and resources of the culture that affect activities and interactions at all inner layers. The chronosystem is not a specific context. Instead, it refers to the dynamic nature of child development.
Two types of systematic observation used in child development research are naturalistic and structured observation. Explain the benefits and limitations of each.
Observations of the behavior of children, and of adults who are important in their lives, can be made in different ways. One approach is to go into the field, or natural environment, and observe the behavior of interest—a method called naturalistic observation. The great strength of naturalistic observation is that investigators can see directly the everyday behaviors they hope to explain. One limitation of this research method is that not all individuals have the same opportunity to display a particular behavior in everyday life. Researchers commonly deal with this difficulty by making structured observations in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants. In this approach, the investigator sets up a laboratory situation that evokes the behavior of interest so that every participant has an equal opportunity to display the response. Structured observation permits greater control over the research situation than does naturalistic observation. In addition, the method is especially useful for studying behaviors that investigators rarely have an opportunity to see in everyday life. A limitation of structured observation is that participants may not behave in the laboratory as they typically behave in their natural environment.
Define resilience, and describe the factors that seem to offer protection from the damaging effects of stressful life events.
Resilience is the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development. Four broad factors seem to offer protection from the damaging effects of stressful life events: 1. Personal characteristics: A child's genetically influenced characteristics can reduce exposure to risk or lead to experiences that compensate for early stressful events. 2. A warm parental relationship: A close relationship with at least one parent who provides warmth, appropriately high expectations, monitoring of the child's activities, and an organized home environment fosters resilience. 3. Social support outside the immediate family: The most consistent asset of resilient children is a strong bond with a competent, caring adult. For children who do not have a close bond with either parent, a grandparent, aunt, uncle, or teacher who forms a special relationship with the child can promote resilience. 4. Community resources and opportunities: Good schools, convenient and affordable health care and social services, libraries, and recreation centers foster both parents' and children's well-being.
Why are ethical concerns heightened when children take part in research? How is informed consent used with children?
The quest for scientific knowledge can sometimes exploit people. When children take part in research, the ethical concerns are especially complex. Children are more vulnerable than adults to physical and psychological harm. In addition, immaturity makes it difficult or impossible for children to evaluate for themselves what participation in research will mean. Thus, special ethical guidelines for research on children have been developed. All research participants, including children, have the right to have explained to them, in language appropriate to their level of understanding, all aspects of the research that may affect their willingness to participate. When children are participants, informed consent of parents as well as others who act on the child's behalf (such as school officials) should be obtained, preferably in writing. As soon as children are old enough to appreciate the purpose of the research, and certainly by 7 years of age, their own informed assent, or agreement, should be obtained in addition to parental consent. Children, and the adults responsible for them, have the right to discontinue participation in the research at any time.
Identify the three basic issues on which theories of child development take a stand, and briefly describe the opposing views taken on each basic issue.
The three basic issues on which theories of child development take a stand and the opposing views taken on each issue are as follows: 1. Is the course of development continuous or development? If development is continuous—a process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with—then infants and preschoolers respond to the world in much the same way as adults do. The difference between the immature and the mature being is simply one of amount or complexity. If development is discontinuous—a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times—then infants and children have unique ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving, ones quite different from adults. 2. Does one course of development characterize all children, or are there many possible courses? Theories that accept the discontinuous perspective regard development as taking place in stages—qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development. Stage theorists assume that people everywhere follow the same sequence of development. At the same time, the field of child development is becoming increasingly aware that children grow up in distinct contexts—unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change. Contemporary theorists regard the contexts that shape development as many-layered and complex. Different circumstances foster different cognitive capacities, social skills, and feelings about the self and others. 3. What are the roles of genetic and environmental factors—nature and nurture—in development? The age-old nature-nurture controversy asks whether genetic or environmental factors are more important in influencing development. Although all theories grant roles to both nature and nurture, they vary in emphasis.
Compare and contrast the terms critical period and sensitive period, and discuss how observations of imprinting led to the development of these concepts.
Tinbergen observed behavior patterns that promote survival. The best known of these is imprinting, the early following behavior of certain baby birds, which ensures that the young will stay close to the mother and be fed and protected from danger. Imprinting takes place during an early, restricted period of development. If the mother is absent during this time but an object resembling her in important features is present, young birds may imprint on it instead. Observations of imprinting led to a major concept in child development: the critical period. It is a limited time span during which the child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment. A sensitive period is a time that is biologically optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences. The idea of a sensitive period applies better to human development than the strict notion of a critical period. However, its boundaries are less well-defined than are those of a critical period. Development can occur later, but it is harder to induce.