Chapter 1 + 2

Han Wudi

" "the martial emperor" : His reign resulted in vast territorial expansion, development of a strong and centralized state resulting from his governmental re-organization, including his promotion of Confucian doctrines. In the field of historical social and cultural studies, Emperor Wu is known for his religious innovations and patronage of the poetic and musical arts. Han emperor

Trojan War

(around 1200 B.C.), in which an army lead by Mycenaean kings attacked the city of Troy in Anatolia

St. Augustine

: Augustine was an important figure in the history of Christianity. He wrote about topics like predestination and original sin. Some of his doctrines separate Western and Eastern Christianity, and he defined some doctrines of Western Christianity.

Socrates

: philosopher who believed in an absolute right or wrong; asked students pointed questions to make them use their reason, later became Socratic method. He was the influence to Plato, and as a result, also Aristotle.

Bishop

A high or chief priest; the pope; the bishop of Rome

Tribune

A written code of law offered plebeians some protection from abuse; a system of public assemblies provided an opportunity for lower classes to shape public policy and a new office of tribune, who represented plebeians, allowed them to block unfavorable legislation.

Kush

An African state that developed along the upper reaches of the Nile c. 1000 B.C.E. and conquered Egypt and ruled it for several centuries

Stoicism

An ancient Greek philosophy that became popular amongst many notable Romans. Emphasis on ethics. They considered destructive emotions to be the result of errors in judgment, and that a wise person would repress emotions, especially negative ones and that "virtue is sufficient for happiness." They were also concerned with the conflict between free will and determinism. They were also non-dualists and naturalists.

Nirvana

Buddhist state of enlightenment; state of tranquility

Hittites

By 1500 BCE, the Hittites dominated the region (around Babylon), especially because they learned how to use iron in their weapons. Because iron is a lot stronger than bronze, the Hittites quickly became a military superpower.

Dravidian

Dravidians are those who are part of a group who live in southern India and Sri Lanka. They speak a group of several languages. Some believe that they inhavited the subcontinent before the Aryans arrived.

Pax Romana

Following Augustus, emperors were less reluctant to flaunt their imperial prerogatives. During the first two centuries of CE, this empire in disguise provided security, grandeur, and relative prosperity for the Mediterranean world. This was the Pax Romana, the Roman peace, the era of imperial Rome's greatest extent and greatest authority.

Upper Egypt

For most of pharaonic Egypt's history, Thebes was the administrative center of Upper Egypt. After its devastation by the Assyrians, its importance declined. Under the Ptolemies, Ptolemais Hermiou took over the role of Upper Egypt's capital city.[6] Upper Egypt was represented by the tall White Crown Hedjet, and its symbols were the flowering lotus and the sedge.

Untouchables

LOWEST LEVEL OF INDIAN SOCIETY; not considered a real part of the caste system; often given degrading jobs; their life was extremely difficult

Minoans

Prosperous civilization on the Aegean island of Crete in the second millennium BCE. The Minoans engaged in far-flung commerce around the Mediterranean and exerted powerful cultural influences on the early Greeks. It was the beginnings of Greece. Its fall led to poleis.

Plato

Socrates' student who created the republic as his solution to the breakdown of law and order of the Hellenic World. He is important for his influence to Aristotle.

Irrigation

Sumerian irrigation involved a complex and artificial network of canals and dikes that led to the salinization of the soil.

Antigonus / Antigonid Empire

The Antigonid dynasty was a dynasty of Hellenistic kings descended from Alexander the Great's general Antigonus (One Eye). It was located in the Asia Minor and northern Syria.

Silk Roads

The Caravan route that crossed Central Asia, enabling Chinese goods like silk, tea, and porcelain to be distributed west toward the Mediterranean regions and to South Asia and East Africa. Goods like spices and rare animal products were brought to China along the same routes

Bhagavad Gita

The most important work of Indian sacred literature, a dialogue between the great warrior Arjuna and the god Krishna on duty and the fate of the spirit.

Parish

a small administrative district typically having its own church and a priest or pastor.

Pharaoh

an Egyptian ruler who was at the top of the social pyramid

Sparta

an agricultural and highly militaristic region of Greek civilizations. Most citizens in Sparta lived in very austere, highly disciplined existence. All of the boys, and even some of the girls, received military training, which stressed equality but not individuality. It encouraged a powerful army that influenced Greece

Chavín Cult (in the Andes Mountains):

another urban civilization, and their people were also polytheistic. But while mostly agricultural, they had access to the coast, and therefore supplemented their diet with seafood. The Chavin developed ways to use metals in tools and weapons. Interestingly, the Chavin used llamas as their beasts of burden.

Patriarch

any of those biblical figures regarded as fathers of the human race, especially Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, their forefathers, or the sons of Jacob.

Patricians

aristocratic landowners who held most of the power and inherited their power and social status.

Stupa

buddhist shrines(a place of worship hallowed by association with some sacred thing or person)

Persepolis

capital of the Persian empire. It reflected the immense wealth and power of the Persian Empire. Palaces, audience halls, quarters for the harem, monuments, and carvings made these cities into powerful symbols of imperial authority. Materials and workers alike were drawn from all corners of the empire and beyond.

Plebeians

common farmers, artisans, and merchants who made up the majority of the population and had the right to vote

Rome vs. Constantinople as capitals of Roman Empire

constantinople=in turkey, Rome=in italy

Herodotus

ethnographer who believed that Athens won the Persian Wars because of Persia's hubris. His works are the earliest known examples of narrative history.

New Testament

focuses more on the life and teachings of Jesus and the Christian church. The stories are narrated through gospels and emphasize the importance of the sacrifice of Jesus. The function of the New Testament is to lead people to follow the example of Jesus more closely. The other books, written by various authors also talk about the end of the world and last battle between good and evil.

Aristocracy

form of government where a small group of elites rule. In Ancient Greece, a polis, or Greek city-state, could be governed by a monarch, an aristocracy, or by a democracy, a form of government where citizens create laws for themselves.

Nebuchadnezzar

king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and transformed Babylon into a spectator city (hanging gardens and blue gate).

Semitic languages

refers to a family of languages spoken in parts of western Asia and northern Africa

Hellenistic Era

that culture associated with the spread of Greek influence as a result of Macedonian conquests; often seen as the combination of Greek culture with eastern political forms

Shi Huangdi

the Qin's first emperor. He recentralized various feudal kingdoms that had split apart at the end of the Zhou Dynasty; standardized all the laws, currencies, weights, measures, and systems of writing; and refused to tolerate any dissent whatsoever. If dissent occurred in a book, he had it burned; if dissent occurred in the mind of a scholar, he had the scholar killed. He made people pay taxes by doing forced public service (corvée).

Trajan

the Roman empire reaches greatest territorial extent under his rule. Roman emperor and adoptive son of Nerva, Adopted by Nerva (previous emperor); One of the "Good Emperors"; Professional soldier from Spain; 1st non-Italian emperor; Brought Rome to it's height in size (about size of US)

Mesoamerica

the area extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua in which diverse pre-Columbian civilizations flourished. For example, Mayas, Chavin, and Olmecs.

Dharma

the caste position and career determined by a person's birth

Qin

the empire that connected separate fortification walls that eventually became the Great Wall of China proving that this empire was organized, centralized, and territorial. This dynasty was patriarchal and the dominant belief system was Legalism. The dynasty fell about the emperor's death when peasants, who resented the Qin Dynasty's heavy handedness.

Kshatriyas

the second highest of the four varnas: warriors

Crucifixion

the son of God, Jesus, died on the cross in which all sins were forgiven / Good Friday

Democracy (direct vs. indirect

) In Indirect, or Representative democracy, citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf. In a direct democracy, which is also called pure democracy the decisions are not taken by representatives. All decisions are voted on by the people.[1] When a budget or law needs to be passed, then the idea goes to the people. Large governments rarely make decisions this way

Alexander the Great

: the Macedonians didn't stop with Greece. Philip's son, Alexander the Great, who was taught by Aristotle, widely expanded Macedonain dominance. Under Alexander, they conquered the mighty Persian Empire and moved eastward to the shores of the Indus River in what now today is India, eventually creating the largest empire of the time. However, the strain of such conquests took its toll on the usually vigorous Alexander and he died at the age of 33 in Babylon and his army were returning to Macedonia. Before his corpse got cold, however, his generals quickly fought over the spoils of his empire, dividing it among themselves. The chief significance of Alexander the Great's amazing conquests lay in the widespread dissemination of Greek culture during the Hellenistic Era (323-30 BCE)

Upanishads

A book teaching of reincarnation, and explaining the Vedas. It gave reason for the caste system in India (Hinduism)

Jesus

A charismatic Jewish teacher whom Christians recognized as their savior. He wanted peace between the Romans and the Jews, and taught that "the kingdom of G-d is at hand". Romans took this as a threat, despite its spiritual meaning, and executed him as a result. Followers later claimed that Jesus triumphed over death and rose from the grave, and that he died for his followers' sins. He started the greatest religious movement of all time.

Agamemnon

Achaecean/Mycenaen commander who attacked Troy during the Trojan War

Gupta Empire

After Ashoka's death in 232 BCE, the Mauryan Empire began to decline rapidly, primarily due to economic problems and pressure from attacks in the northeast. But between 375 and 415 CE, it experienced a revival under Chandra Gupta II, known as Chandra Gupta the great. The Gupta Empire was more decentralized and smaller than its predecessor, but it is often referred to as a golden age because it enjoyed relative peace and saw significant advances in the arts and sciences. For example. Gupta mathematicians developed the concepts of pi and zero. They also devised a decimal system that used the numerals 1 through 9 (which were diffused to the Arabs and became known as Arabic numerals). By the time of the Gupta Dynasty, Hinduism had again become the dominant religion in India. Hinduism reinforced the caste system, meaning that Indian social structures were very rigid. Though the empire as a whole was enjoying an era of peace, prosperity, and artistic endeavors, women were increasingly losing their rights. Totally under the control of men, Indian women lost the right to own or inherit property, and could not participate in scared rituals or study religion. And stemming from an increasingly urban society that placed a growing importance on the inheritance of property, child marriage also became the norm during this era. The Gupta Dynasty collapsed under the pressure from the White Huns in 550 CE.

Constantine:

After rising to power in 306 BCE, as a co-emperor, Constantine defeated his rivals and assumed sole control over the empire in 322 CE. He ordered the building of Constantinople at the site of the Greek city of Byzantium, and in 340 CE, this city became the capital of a united empire. Constantine, too was an able emperor, but the problems of shrinking income and increased external pressures proved insurmountable. After his death, the empire was again divided into two pieces, east and east. The eastern half thrived from its center at Constantinople; the western half, centered in Rome, continued its spiral westward.

Jainism

An influential religion that arose in India when people started to stray from Brahmin rituals. It emphasizes ahimsa to extreme extents and believes even non-living things have souls. A religion that requires your entire life to obtain salvation. It involves extreme asceticism which led to it's unpopularity when Buddhism arose

Amorite/Old Babylonian Empire

Around 1900 BC, a group of Semites called the Amorites had managed to gain control of most of the Mesopotamian region. Like the Akkadians, the Amorites centralized the government over the individual city-states and based their capital in the city of Babylon, which was originally called Akkad and served as the center of the Amorite empire. For this reason, the Amorites are called the Old Babylonians and the period of their ascendancy over the region, which lasted from 1900-1600 BC, is called the Old Babylonian period. The Old Babylonians believed that the monarch was a god and had a divine origin. This powerful new monarchy invented new ways to administer the state and its resources: taxation and involuntary military service. Above all, the greatest innovation was centralization. While the Sumerian civilization consisted of independent and autonomous city-states, the Old Babylonian state was a behemoth of dozens of cities. In order to make this system work, power and autonomy was taken from the individual cities and invested in the monarch. As a result, the Old Babylonians invented an entirely new set of laws: laws which dealt with crimes against the state. (Hammurabi's Code) Notable that their famous king was King Hammurabi of Babylon.

Carthage

As Rome began to expand across the Italian peninsula, it encountered a fierce competitor in the city of Carthage in North Africa, which had gained wealth through the thriving trade in the Mediterranean region. This economic competition led to the Punic Wars, which took place between 264 and 148 BCE. By the end of the conflict, Rome had sacked the city of Carthage, solidifying its domination of the Mediterranean.

Punic Wars

As Rome expanded, Carthage, a city-state in North Africa with powerful ambitions of its own, became its first enemy. It didn't take long for this conflict to escalate into a full-fledged wars, which came to be called the Punic Wars. These lasted one and off from 264 through 164 BCE. The First Punic War (264-241 BCE) was fought to gain control of the island of Sicily; Rome won this won. The Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) began with an attack by Hannibal, a Carthaginian general considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all time. In an amazing feat, Hannibal led his army all the way to northern Italy, crossed the Alps (on elephants), and surprised the Romans, who were expecting an attack from the south. Hannibal's army destroyed many towns and villages to the north of Rome and were on the verge of destroying Rome, but a Roman army had landed in north Africa, forcing Hannibal to return to Carthage to defend his city. Carthage eventually agreed to sue for peace, and this made Rome the undisputed power in the western Mediterranean. Fifty years later, the Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) was instigated by Rome. Rome invaded Carthage and burned it to the ground. With Carthage out of the picture, Rome continued its expansion throughout the Mediterranean.

Classical Era in Greece

Classical Greece was a 200 year period in Greek culture lasting from the 5th through 4th centuries BC.[1] This classical period saw the annexation of much of modern day Greece by the Persian Empire, its subsequent independence, and it also had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire and greatly influenced the foundations of Western Civilization. Much of modern Western politics, artistic thought, such as architecture, scientific thought, literature, and philosophy derives from this period of Greek history

Ptolemy (the scientist)

Greek astronomer and philosopher, 100-170 AD. placed stellar universe on a crystal sphere. Earth stood still. Sun orbited Earth. Used looping small circles on the orbits to account for retrograde (moving backwards) of the planets. His Almagest was one of the longest-used textbooks.

Cyrus the Great

He was best known for his religious and cultural tolerance, which was continued in later reigns. Cyrus won the gratitude of the Jews when in 539 BCE he allowed those in Babylon to return to their homeland and rebuild their temple in Jerusalem He allowed all conquered people to practice their religion and their culture, without Persian interference. Another distinguishing factor of how Cyrus lead was that he took no slaves. War did not end in taking prisoner slaves, they were incorporated as paid workers. Those paid workers were employed by the government to build all of Persia's many monuments and public works.

Archimedes

Hellenistic scientist who accurately estimated the value of pi, explained the law of the lever, invented a special type of screw and a catapult

Roman Republic vs. Roman Empire

In the Republic, political power was in the hands of the Senate, mostly composed of the Roman aristocracy. There were a number of theoretical checks and balances on political power, but many of these were more apparent than real, the senior Roman aristocracy essentially running Roma largely for their own benefit through the Senate. Under the Empire, all political power was in the hands of the Emperor, an autocrat who ruled with Absolute power. However, under the emperors, the wealth was spread around more evenly. Expansion of territory under Roman control made the empire much richer than the republic, and a number of imperial construction projects - the Coliseum, Circus Maximus, Trajan's Forum, the Baths of Caracalla - provided services and free entertainment to all in Rome, and the infrastructure of imperial provinces was widely improved under the emperors - something generally given a much lower priority under the Republic. The Emperors widened Roman citizenship to the provinces, giving more rights to more people, and in Rome itself the dole of free bread to citizens was regularized and increased.

Christianity

In the early days, Christianity was spread by the disciples of Jesus and by Paul of Tarsus. Paul originally was an extreme anti-Christian who was converted by a vision of Christ and became a principal figure in propagating the new religion. With its emphasis on compassion, grace through faith, and the promise of eternal life regardless of personal circumstances. Christianity appealed widely to the lower classes and women, by the third century CE, Christianity had become the most influential religion in the Mediterranean basin. Following a period of persecution, it became legal within, and then the official religion of, the Roman Empire; it continued to branch northward and westward into regions beyond the boundaries of the Roman Empire. In coming centuries, the marriage of Christianity and empire would profoundly affect the developments in a large segment of the world.

Hadrian (Hadrian's Wall in England):

Roman emperor who follows Trajan. He changes the policy of territorial expansion to consolidation rather than expansion. The Roman Empire in AD 117-138. He ordered the construction of this wall. He traveled though his empire to strengthen it's frontiers and encourage learning and architecture. He was as also born in Spain, built bridges, roads, and aqueducts, ruled during the height of the Pax Romana, adoptive son of Trajan, Hadrian's Wall was a fortified barrier that stretched across Roman Britain to defend it from the tribes of barbarians. Construction began in 122 A.D., and lasted until 130 A.D. In present day Scotland, built to keep barbarian invaders from Roman Britain. Punctuated with forts, customs stops, signal posts and on either side, a 30 foot moat for added protection. Soldiers were posted on its top which functioned as a road.

Julius Caesar

Rome was shaken by a series of civil wars from 91 to 30 BCE. During this period, the republican form of government faltered, and political power began to fall into the hands of the first triumvirate. Caesar was given power over the southern Gaul (France) and other parts of Europe. He chose not to conquer Germany, which would later prove significant (Germany developed a different culture and would ultimately serve as a training ground for groups intent on conquering Rome). Civil war broke out between the Senate and Caesar's followers resulted in pushing Pompey and Crassus (the other two members of the first triumvirate) out of the picture, after which Caesar became the emperor for life. But his life didn't last long. His angry senators assassinated him in 44 BCE.

Akkadian Empire

Sargon, their famous ruler, conquered Sumer and built an Akkadian empire stretching over most of the Sumerian city-states and extending as far away as Lebanon. Sargon based his empire in the city of Akkad, which became the basis of the name of his people. This great capital of the largest empire humans had ever seen up until that point later became the city of Babylon, which was the commercial and cultural center of the middle east for almost two thousand years. The Akkadians major contribution was they developed the first known code of laws, which they wrote in cuneiform, which they learned from the Sumerians. But by 1700 BCE, Akkad was overrun by a new powerhouse in Mesopotamia. (Amorite)

Old Testament

The Old Testament provides the basis of the present day Judeo-Christian faith. It talks about the history of how the world was created, exodus of Israelites, and the Ten Commandments given to Moses by God, and also includes real life stories. The function of this text is to teach people through the experiences of people throughout history. Several books also foretell the arrival of the Messiah and the end of the world.

Hannibal

The Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) began with an attack by Hannibal, a Carthaginian general considered one of the greatest military geniuses of all time. In an amazing feat, Hannibal led his army all the way to northern Italy, crossed the Alps (on elephants), and surprised the Romans, who were expecting an attack from the south. Hannibal's army destroyed many towns and villages to the north of Rome and were on the verge of destroying Rome, but a Roman army had landed in north Africa, forcing Hannibal to return to Carthage to defend his city.

Seleucus/Seleucid Empire

The Seleucid also known as Seleucia (was a Hellenistic state ruled by the Seleucid dynasty founded by Seleucus following the division of the empire created by Alexander the Great. Seleucus received Babylonia and, from there, expanded his dominions to include much of Alexander's near eastern territories. At the height of its power, it included central Anatolia, Persia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Kuwait, what is now Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, and northwest parts of India. The Seleucid Empire was a major center of Hellenistic culture that maintained the preeminence of Greek customs where a Greek-Macedonian political elite dominated, mostly in the urban areas. The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by emigration from Greece

Skepticism

The Skeptics were a group of philosophers whose main idea was that we can't really know anything for certain about the world around us, or about ourselves. Therefore, we can't really ever know what is right or wrong, either. Some of these ideas came from Socrates, who also thought that the wisest man is the one who realizes that he doesn't know anything, but Skepticism really began with Pyrrhon (about 365-270 B.C.)

Darius

The great king of Persia. He was able to become a king after a year of a civil war following the death of someone. Darius also practiced religious and cultural tolerance, and expended on what Cyrus started. Cyrus compiled the Persian empire, but died before he could unite it. Darius was able to unite it using the same policies and administration techniques as Cyrus. He continued the practice of paid workers building public works, and built more monuments.

Ptolemy (the general) / Ptolemaic Empire:

When Alexander the Great died (at age 32), his empire was split into three parts. This part (Ptolemaic) was given to general Ptolemy, and it was located in Egypt along the Nile. This empire became the wealthiest. Alexandria, its capital, was built at the mouth of the Nile. Wisely, Ptolemaic rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society, and, eventually, Ptolemaic Egypt also became a cultural center, home of the Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library, the latter of which contained the most scrolls of any location in the empire, perphaps the whole world.

Thucydides

Wrote the first work of scientific History. (Describing the human world.)

Mayans

a collection of city-states in modern day Mexico. All city states were ruled by the same king. Interestingly, like the Egyptains, the Maya were pyramid builders, and also wrote using hieroglyphics. The golden age of the Mayan civilization was from about 500 to about 850 CE. During that time, the Maya produced many great works of scholarship and developed a complex calendar system, but we know the most about its architecture and city planning because many remains have been discovered. The Maya built tremendous cities-Tikal, the most important Mayan political center, may habe been populated by more than 100,000 people. The Maya divided their cosmos into three parts: the heavens above, the humans in the middle, and the underworld below. The Maya believed that the gods created humans out of maize (one of the main Mayan dietary staples) and water. They also believed that the gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for honors, sacrifices, and bloodletting rituals. Mayan warfare was somewhat unique in that it was imbued with a tremendous amount of religious significance. Days of religious ritual would precede a battle, and the King nobility would actively participate in combat. One unique characteristic of Mayan warfare was that it was generally conducted not to gain territory, but to acquire slaves, who were used in large-scale building projects and in agricultural production. The Maya had no large animals, so humans were their primary source of labor. Similar to most agricultural societies, the majority of the people were peasants or slaves. Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility were at the top of the social pyramid. Merchants also enjoyed high status. The Maya used advanced agricultural techniques, such as the ridged field system, to make the most of the rainfall and swamp conditions of the region. Cotton and maize were widely cultivated; the Maya are known for their elaborate cotton textiles. Many well-preserved ruins of this civilization remain today; including the tiered temple at Chichen Itza, which is similar in design to the Egyptian pyramids and Mesopotamian ziggurats, and several ball courts, which were used for a ritual sport throughout ancient Mesoamerica. Significantly, the Mayan calendar, based on a number system that included zero, was among the most accurate for its time.

Diocese

a district under the pastoral care of a bishop in the Christian Church

Daoism

advocated the formation of small, Self-sufficient communities and served as a counter balance to Confucian activism. And as an advocate of harmony with nature, Daoism promoted scientific discoveries. Daoists became great astronomers, chemists, and botanists. Daoism's impact, though, is greater than philosophy. It's notable because it coexisted with Confucianism, Buddhism, and Legalism in China and other Eastern civilizations as separate and distinct from the western world.

Olmecs

an urban society supported by surpluses of corn, beans, and squash in Mexico. Like most early societies, they mastered irrigation techniques and constructed large-scale buildings; they were polytheistic, and developed a system on writing and a calendar. DID NOT DEVELOP IN RIVER VALLEY.

Zoroastrianism

attributed to the prophet Zoroaster. Zoroastrianism is a dualistic faith, which means that they believe in two gods representing good and evil. The main god of good and truth tries to lead his followers into overcoming the forces of evil and chaos, and humanity must play a role in ensuring that order survives. Thus, an individual action of a person through his or her life determines the spiritual salvation of that soul, that good will triumph over chaos at some power in the future. When chaos has been removed from the Universe, humans will transcend depending on their behaviors in their lifetimes. Zoroastrianism was an important religion to Iranian people, though its importance grew immensely when the Sassanid Persian dynasty was founded. As the state religion of the Sassanid Empire, it engendered the Sassanid state wherever the Persians weren't ruling and led to crackdowns on Zoroastrians within the Roman Empire, since the Romans feared that practitioners could not attempt to betray the empire to the Persians. However, its dualistic tendencies clearly influenced Christian thinking considerably, prior to Christianity becoming a state religion of the Roman Empire, and led to another point of contact between the cultures, this time in the realm of religions

Senate:

patrician assembly (aristocratic landowners). Executive authority was exercised by two consuls, who were advised by a patrician assembly, the Senate.

Nomadic

people who don't have a permanent home and are dependent on climate, availability of plants and animals (ie. Paleolithic Period consisted of many nomadic tribes that relied on nature for survival, so they never settled in just one place)

Sedentary

people who had a permanent home and are independent on nature (ie. During the Neolithic Revolution, many sedentary communities emerged that had food surpluses from the food they cultivated, so they were able to stay in the same place)

Aristotle

prominent Greek philosopher, noted for his philosophically based thoughts of "science". He discovered the Natural Law of the Cycle of Constitutions, which described each cycle a polis, would go through and believed in the Philosophical Method, which was to observe evidence, then generalize the facts and make it into a natural law. His ideas were used in the Catholic Church. He also tutored Alexander the Great.

Persian Empire

the Persians established a big empire—a really big empire—that by 500 BCE, stretched from beyond the Nile River Valley in Egypt around the eastern Mediterranean through present day Turkey and parts of Greece, and then eastward through present day Turkey and parts of Greece, and then eastward through present day Afghanistan. They did this by conquering all those earlier ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Babylonians, the Babylonians, the Lydian's, the Phoenicians, and the Egyptians. On account of the vast expanse of their empire, the delegated local administration of their provinces, or satrapies, to important people in the provinces. As long as the governor, satrap, paid his taxes and contributed soldiers to the Great King (who had absolute power) whenever they were requested, the satrapy was allowed a wide range of self government, which was vital to keeping such a far flung empire of so many different cultures together. To improve transportation and communication across the vast empire, the Persians built a series of long roads. The longest was the Great Royal Road, which stretched some 1,600 miles from the Persian Gulf to the Aegean Sea. The Persian Empire centered on an elaborate cult of kingship in which the monarch, secluded in royal magnificence, could be approached only through an elaborate ritual. When the king died, sacred fires all across the land were extinguished, Persians were expected to shave their shave in mourning, and the manes of horses were cut short. Kings were absolute monarchs, willing to crush rebellious regions or officials. A general policy of respect for the empire's many non-Persian cultural traditions also cemented the state's authority. The infrastructure of empire included a system of standardized coinage, predictable taxes levied on each province, and a newly dug canal linking the Nile with the Red Sea, which greatly expanded commerce and enriched Egypt. A royal road facilitated communication and commerce across this vast empire. And an elaborate underground irrigation system sustained rich agricultural economy in the semi-arid conditions of the Iranian plateau and spread from there throughout the Middle East and beyond. The elaborate imperial centers reflected the immense wealth and power of the Persian empire. Palaces, audience halls, quarters fir the harem, monuments, and carvings made these cities into powerful symbols of imperial authority.

Octavian (Caesar Augustus)

the first emperor of the Roman Empire (31 BCE-476 CE) because he rose to power from the second triumvirate. He reigned from (30 BCE to 14 CE). Under Augustus, Rome became the capital of the Western World. Augustus established the rule of law, a common coinage, civil service, and secure travel for merchants. With all these elements in place, stability returned to its people, and for 200 years they enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana. Though many of the laws were uniform throughout the empire during this period, a number of traditional customs of people in the conquered territories survived,

Epicureanism

the philosophical system or doctrine of Epicurus, holding that the external world is a series of fortuitous combinations of atoms and that the highest good is pleasure, interpreted as freedom from disturbance or pain.

Pan-Hellenism

the spread of Greco-Roman culture and ideas throughout the entire empire. Alexander the great started this Hellenistic movement. A result of Alexander the great's vast empire and Hellenistic empires included Alexandria in Egypt.

Consul

two roman officials with limited power, had only a one year term, couldn't be consul again until ten years later, and could veto each other's decisions. A PART OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Chandragupta Maurya

used terror psychology. He put in place personal assistance spies to check on the people who were in charge with the providences with a secret police. Elites are their biggest threat. (similar to the Old kingdom)

Caste System

1) Varna. Economic specialization and culture apparently more important than notions of race. Three segments of pure Aryans (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, vaisyas) and then Sudras. 2)Jati. Social distinctions based on specific occupations, organized as guilds. There were many functions of the caste. The caste was very local, so it focused loyalities on a restricted tierritory making empire empire very difficult and the caste as a subsitite for the state. The caste provided some social secuirte and support (care of widows, orphans, the destitute). The caste was a means to accommodate migrants and invaders. It also made it easier for the wealthy and powerful to exploit the poor.

Confucianism

: a political and social philosophy NOT a religion. It focuses on five fundamental relationships: ruler and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. When each person in these relationships lives up to his or her obligations of those relationships, society is orderly and predictable. Confucianism concentrates on the formation of junzi, individuals considered superior because they are educated, conscientious, and able to put aside personal ambition for the good of the state. Because Confuciansim was an ethical, social, and political belief system, as opposed to a religion, it was compatible with other religions. In other words, a person could, for example, practice both Buddhism and Confuciansim simultaneously. This flexibility enabled Confucianism to flourish. Government leaders, too, embraced it, because it was intended to create an ordely society. Its widespread acceptance eventually extremely tight-knit; memebers had duties and responsibilities to many others in the community from birth to death.

Ancestor Veneration

: ancestor worship. Shang religion held that gods controlled all aspects of peoples' lives; people also believed they could call on the spirits of their dead ancestors to act as their advocates with the gods.

Indo-European languages

A family of several hundred related languages all have common similarities. Possible that everyone spoke the same but because of migration, evolved separately.

Mandate of Heaven

Chinese religious and political ideology developed by the Zhou, according to which it was the prerogative of Heaven, the chief deity, to grant power to the ruler of China and to take away that power if the ruler failed to conduct himself justly and in the best interests of his subjects.

Polis

Greek city state. Each polis shared a common culture and identity. Each polis was part of a broader civilization and shared a common language and many similar traditions; each was independent from, and often in conflict with, the others. Examples of two independent Greek polis are Sparta and Athens.

Vaishyas:

Hindu middle class; merchants, artisans

Shudras

Hindu peasants, agricultural laborers

Karma

Hinduism and Buddhism) the effects of a person's actions that determine his destiny in his next incarnation

What was the sequence of human migration across the plant?

Human migration out of Africa led first to the Middle East and from there westward into Europe about 45,000 years ago and eastward into Asia. Colder Ice Age climates around 20,000 years ago apparently pushed more northerly European peoples southward into warmer regions.

Oracle Bones

In Chinese civilization, animal bones that were heated and the cracks then interpreted as prophecies. The prophecies were written on the bone and provide our earliest written sources for ancient China.

Epic of Gilgamesh

In at least some of its literature, the Mesopotamian outlook on life, which developed within a precarious, unpredictable, and often violent environment, viewed humankind as caught in an inherently disorderly world, subject to the whims of capricious and quarreling gods, and facing death without much hope of a blessed life beyond. This famous epic likewise depicted a rater pessimistic view of the gods and the possibility for eternal life. We discovered this from a library Nineveh (Assyrian).

Relics

In stupas (mounds/shrines that Ashoka built), they put human parts called Relics.

Harappa

Indus Valley civilizations' two major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, were each home to perhaps more than 100,000 people-enormous cities by ancient standards. There is evidence that the cities were master planned, uniformly constructed, and had sophisticated wastewater systems. This indicates that the Indus people had a strong central government, probably led by a priest-king.

Mohenjo Daro

Indus Valley civilizations' two major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, were each home to perhaps more than 100,000 people-enormous cities by ancient standards. There is evidence that the cities were master planned, uniformly constructed, and had sophisticated wastewater systems. This indicates that the Indus people had a strong central government, probably led by a priest-king.

Legalism

It maintained that peace and order were achievable only through a centralized, tightly government state. Simply put, Legalism didn't trust human nature and, therefore, advocated the need for tough laws. They believed that people would be made to obey through harsh punishment, strong central government, and unquestioned authority. They focused only on things that were practical or that sustained the society. Not surprisingly then, Legalists believed that two of the most worthy professions were farming and the military. By adopting legalism, the Qin Dynasty was able to accomplish the unification of China swiftly, and the completions of massive projects like the building of the Great Wall. But because legalism also caused widespread resentment among the common people who suffered under it, Legalism inadvertently led to wider acceptance of Confucianism and Daoism.

Hammurabi

King Hammurabi of Babylon expanded on this idea of code of laws (from Akkadian Empire) by developing an extensive code that dealt with every part of daily life. The Code of Hammurabi, as it has come to be called, is often credited as a significant step toward our modern legal codes. It distinguished between major and minor offenses and its established a sense of justice and fairness by applying the laws to nearly everyone (the beginnings of the "rule of law").

Indus River

Like Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization was built along the banks of a river system. But because of the huge mountains north and west of the Indus River, contact with outside civilizations was more limited there than in Mesopotamia which was under continual threat by invaders. The Khyber Pass through the Hindu Kush Mountians provided a connection to the outside world and ws used by merchants on trade excursions. (Later gave invading forces a way into the a way into the land) From at least 2500 to around 1500 BCE, the ancient Indus Valley civilization stretched for more than 900 miles along the Indus River in what today is northwestern India. Its two major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, were each home to perhaps more than 100,000 people-enormous cities by ancient standards. There is evidence that the cities were master planned, uniformly constructed, and had sophisticated wastewater systems. This indicates that the Indus people had a strong central government, probably led by a priest-king. Like the major religions of Egypt and Sumer, those in the Indus valley civilizations in the Indus Valley were polytheistic. Like the architecture of its cities, Indus Valley Industry was top-notch. In addition to using techonologies such as potter's wheels, the Indus Valley farmes grew cotton, and its artisans made cloth. This became an extremely important trade item among merchants traveling through thr Khyber Pass to Mesopotamia. Sometime around 1900 BCE , the cities of the Indus Valley were abandoned. By 1500 BCE, the civilization crumbled with the arrival of the Aryans.

Lower Egypt

Lower Egypt was known as Ta-Mehu which means "land of papyrus." It was divided into twenty districts called nomes, the first of which was at el-Lisht. Because Lower Egypt was mostly undeveloped scrubland, undeveloped for human life and filled with all types of plant life such as grasses and herbs, the organization of the nomes underwent several changes. The capital of Lower Egypt was Memphis. Its patron Goddess was the cobra goddess Wadjet. Lower Egypt was represented by the Low Red Crown Deshret, and its symbols were the papyrus and the bee.

City-state

Mesopotamian civilization, located in the southern Tigris-Euphrates region known as Sumer, was organized into a dozen or more separate and independent city-states. Each city-state was ruled by a king, who claimed to represent the city's patron deity and who controlled the affairs of the walled city and surrounding rural area. Frequent warfare between the city-states caused people living in the rural areas to flee to the walled cities for protection. With no overarching authority, rivalry over land and water often led to violent conflicts.

Pyramids

Rulers, known as pharaohs, directed the construction of obelisks and the pyramids, enormous tombs for their afterlife.

Scholar-bureaucrat (also called shi)

Scholar-officials that were civil servants appointed by the emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance. Required to pass civil service exams. Highly educated in Confucianism. (Han Dynasty)

Shang

Shang China rose in the Hwang Ho River Valley (also known as the Yellow River Valley), and like other river-basin communities, used its stable agricultural surplus to build a trade-centered civilization. At its height, Shang controlled large parts of northern China and was militarily quite powerful. Thousands of its workers built walls arounf the towns and cities along the river; its warriors used chariots to defeat their enemies. The Shang dynasty controlled the Yellow River Valley from around 1600 to around 1100 BCE. However, Shang China had limited contact with the rest of the world, through it did trade with Mesopotamia. The Shang were so isolated, in fact, that they believed themselves to be the center of the world. Which explains why they called their civilization "All Under Heaven". This belief contributed to the Shang's ethnocentric attitude, which means they considered themselves superior to all others. The Shang certainly had reasons to be proud. Not only were they accomplished bronze workers, they also used horse drawn chariots, developed the spoked wheel, and became experts in the production of pottery and silk. They devised a decimal system and a highly accurate calendar.

Temple of Jerusalem

Soloman dedicated to YHWH the great Temple. The heart of Jewish religious life for centuries. When the Assyrians invaded, they destroyed this temple and scattered the population.

Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian Empire:

The Chaldean king, Nebuchadnezzar, rebuilt Babylon as a showplace of architecture and culture. He extended his empire throughout the Fertile Crescent, as the Assyrians had done before him. But like all the civilizations before it, the new Babylon was doomed to fall. A new civilization, the Persian empire, develop into a major world force.

Hebrews

The Hebrews are significant because of their religious beliefs called Judaism. The Hebrews were the first Jews. In contrast to previous civilizations in the Fertile Crescent and beyond, the Hebrews were monotheistic, meaning they believed in one god. By around 1000 BCE, the Hebrews had established Israel in Palestine on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Although they were frequently invaded by neighboring empires (eg. Nebuchadnezzar enslaved them), they managed to maintain their identity, in large part because they believed they were God's chosen people. Under the Persians, the Hebrews were freed from captivity and continued to develop a distinct culture that would later lead to the development of major world religions.

Moses

The Hebrews became the Egyptian's slaves, but around 1300 to 1200 BCE, under the prophet Moses, escaped from Egypt. Moses took the Hebrews back to Canaan. During the journey, Moses is said to have handed down from YHWH the principles of Jewish law, including the Ten Commandments, revealed to him on Mount Sinai. He is also considered the author of the Torah, the first five books in the Hebrew Scriptures.

"Babylonian Captivity":

The Hebrews returned to the "Promised Land" on the eastern shores of the Meditteranean, and the kingdom of Israel was established, led by a monarchy. The height of Israelite power came during the regins of King David an dhis son Soloman around 1000 BCE. Later, the Assyrains invaded, destroyed the temple in Jersulsalem, and scattered part of the population. The kingdom of Israel managed to keep its independence for a while, but when the Chaldeans defeated the Assyrains, they also conquered Israel, completely destroyed Jerusalem, and exiled the Israelites to Babylonia.

Mauryan Empire

The Mauryan Empire was an impressive political structure, equivalent to the Persian, Chinese, and Roman empires, though not nearly as long-lasting. They had a large army consisting of war elephants. A civilian bureaucracy featured various ministries and a large contingent of spies to provide the ruler with local information. The state also operated many industries--spinning, weaving, mining, shipbuilding, and armaments. This complex apparatus was financed by taxes on trade, on herds of animals, and especially on land, from which the monarch claimed a quarter or more of the crops.

Lebanon:

The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. In Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, archaeologists have discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 8,000 years ago. The area now known as Lebanon first appeared in recorded history around 4000 BC as a group of coastal cities and a heavily forested hinterland. It was inhabited by the Canaanites, a Semitic people, whom the Greeks called "Phoenicians" because of the purple (phoinikies) dye they sold. These early inhabitants referred to themselves as "men of Sidon" or the like, according to their city of origin, and called the country "Lebanon." Because of the nature of the country and its location, the Phoenicians turned to the sea, where they engaged in trade and navigation.

Bantu

The migration of the Bantu people began around 2000 BCE and by 1000 CE, the Bantu occupied most of sub-Saharan Africa. Resources were stretched to their limits as the population increases. As a result, the groups of people began to leave the areas to set up new agricultural settlements; the process repeated itself slowly. The Bantu people often intermarried with those they came in contact with, and these people often joined the Bantu society. Around 1000 BCE, the Bantus began to produce iron tools, which enables them to clear more land and expand agriculture. This led to an increase in population and more migration. Around 500 CE, the cultivation of bananas—which had made their way to Africa via Indian Ocean Trade—enabled the Bantus to expand into heavily forested regions and to continue the migration process. All of this migrating led to an increase in the overall population of Africa—from 3.5 million in 400 BCE to 22 million in 1000 CE—and the spread of agriculture through much of Africa. Today there are over 500 distinct (though related) languages that can be traced back to the Bantus.

How did Austronesian migrations differ from other early patterns of human movement?

These Pacific voyages were undertaken by agricultural people who carried both domesticated plants and animals in their canoes. Both men and women made these journeys, suggesting a deliberate intention to colonize new lands. Virtually everywhere they went, two developments followed. One was the creation of highly stratified societies or chiefdoms, of which ancient Hawaiian society is a prime example. In Hawaii, an elite class of chiefs with political and military power ruled over a mass of commoners. The other development involved the quick extinction of many species of animals, especially large flightless birds.

Assyrian Empire

Within a 100 years following the fall of Babylon to the Hitties to used how to use iron in their weapons, the Assyrians had learned to use iron, the very technology the Hitties had used to defeat them. This enabled them to establish a capital at Nineveh and , eventually, build an empire that swept across the Fertile Crescent. High dsiplined by cruel, the Assyrian army was hated by those it conquered. As a result, there were frequent uprising against the Assyrain authorities, who, in response, sent large groups of people into exile. This action too played a part in enhancing cultural diffusion across the entire region and beyond. In spite of their power, within a few hundred years, the Assyrains were defeated by the Medes and the Chaldeans.

Book of the Dead:

a description of the ancient Egyptian conception of the afterlife and a collection of hymns, spells, and instructions to allow the deceased to pass through obstacles in the afterlife

Theocracy

a government thought to be guided by a divine power and controlled by religious leaders. Egypt was a theocracy. A powerful king (pharaoh) would promote the belief that he had the support of the gods, so no one would try to remove him and risk the displeasure of the gods. From this grew the idea of divine kingship, that the king was the divine representative of a god on earth.

Han

a large nomadic group from northern Asia who may have been Huns, invaded territories extending from China to Eastern Europe. But due to the success of Wu Ti, they were not successful. Trade thrived along the Silk Road to the Mediterranean; more significantly, along this same route, Buddhism spread. As usual, trade routes carried far more than luxury items; they carried culture. One of the most significant developments that took place during the Han dynasty was the civil service system based on the teachings of Confucius. The Han believed that those involved in government should be highly educated and excellent communicators. To ensure storng candiates, the Han developed a civil service examination, a very difficult test lasting for several days. Though, ostensibly, the exam was open to everyone, generally only the wealthy could afford to prepare for it. The consequence was a government bureaucracy that was highly skilled and that contributed to stability in the system of government for centuries. Also during this time, the Chinese invented paper, highly accurate sundials, and calendars, as well as making important strides in navigation, such as the invention of the rudder and of the compass. And, like all the other civilizations, they continued to broaden their use of metals.

Colonization

a place where foreigners settle and take political control over. In ancient times, maritime nations such as the city-states of Greece and Phoenicia often established colonies so as to farm what they saw as uninhabited land. Population pressures forced the Greeks to continue to colonize and find resources in neighboring areas hence they did not build a centralized imperial state.

Analect

a record of the words and acts of the central Chinese thinker and philosopher Confucius and his disciples. He attracted many followers, some of whom helped share his teachings, and others who collected his thoughts and sayings in the Analects, which would come to have a profound influence on Chinese thinking, both politically and culturally.

Hinduism

a religion as well as a social system—the caste system. In the caste system, you are born into your caste, and if you dissatisfied with it, its an indication you are not following the dharma; therefore, you will have an even worse lot in the next life. This explains why most faithful Hindus quietly accepted their station in life. Though they knew social mobility within one lifetime was out of the question, they were confident that they would accomplish it at death if they lived according to the tenets of Hinduism. Hinduism's close identification with the caste system and the Indian social structure and customs have prevented its acceptance in other parts of the world. In recent years, modern Hindus are beginning to rebel against the strictures of the caste system. But Hinduism as a whole remains a powerful force—even regarding its adherents' relationship to the animal kingdom, because Hindus believe they can be reincarnated as animals. Hinduism later spawned another religion—Buddhism.

Pastoral

a society that is characterized by the domestication of animals. These societies were often found in mountainous regions and in areas with insufficient rainfall to support other forms of settlement. Many of these societies used small-scale agriculture to supplement the main food supply of animal products. The extended family was a major institution. Women had very few rights; however, these societies were more egalitarian than those that came last. Stratification and social status, which were limited in foraging societies, were based on the size of one's herd in pastoral societies. But as in foraging societies, people in pastoral societies had personal possessions. Even though they had domesticated animals (as opposed to having to hunt for animals), they didn't settle down in towns because they had to continually search for new grazing areas and water for the hears. An example of a pastoral society was the Mongols.

Hieroglyphics

a writing system used by Egyptians to communicate, consisted of a series of pictures that represented letters and words.

Tigris River

along with the Euphrates River, both with gave life to Mesopotamia, rose annually and unpredictably [upper river]

Euphrates River

along with the Tigris River, both with gave life to Mesopotamia, rose annually and unpredictably [lower river]

Nile River

ancient Egyptian civilization developed along the Nile River. Around 5000 BCE, experimentation with agriculture began in this area since the soil was rich and the agricultural opportunities were plentiful. The Nile cuts through an otherwise arid landscape, so the people clustered along the riverbanks, where, in addition to farms, they constructed towns and cities. Nile floods at a predictable time of the year and in relatively predictable stages. This made it possible for the ancient Egyptians to follow a very stable agricultural cycle and compile food surpluses

Cultural diffusion

change in a society based on interaction with another culture

Vedas

collections of poems, hymns, prayers, and rituals. Complied by priests called Brahmins. Complied by priests called Brahmins, the Vedas were for centuries transmitted orally and were reduced to writing in Sanskirt around 600 BCE. Those sacred writings tell of small competing chiefdoms or kingdoms, of sacred sounds and fires, or numerous gods, rising and falling in importance over centuries. They also show a patriarchal society. They described as well the elaborate ritual scarifies that Brahmin priests required.

Buddhism

founded by a young Hindu prince named Siddhartha Guatama, who was born and lived in Nepal from 563 through 483 BCE. He rejected his wealth to search for the meaning of human suffering. After mediating under a sacred Bodhi tree, he became the Buddha, or Enlightened One. There is no supreme being in Buddhism. Rather, Buddhists follow the Four Noble Truths. 1) All life is suffering 2) suffering is caused by desire 3) one can be freed of this desire 4) one is freed of desire by following what's called the Eightfold Path. The goal in one's life is to reach nirvana, which may or may not take several lifetimes, meaning that Buddhists also believe in reincarnation. Buddhism holds that anyone can achieve nirvana; it is not dependent on an underlyging social structure, such as the caste system. THERVAVADE V. MAHAYANA Because it did rejected social hierarchies of castes, Buddhism appealed strongly to members of lower rank. And because Buddhism isn't attached to an underlying social structure, it can apply to almost anyone, anywhere. As a consequence, it spread rapidly to other cultures throughout Asia. When Ashoka, the Mauryan Emperor who became appalled by one too many bloody battles, was moved to convert to Buddhism, the religion really took off as a major force in Asia. Eventually, however, in India, Buddhism was reabsorbed into Hinduism, which remained the dominant belief system there. In china, Japan, and Southeast Asia, Buddhism continued to thrive. And as it spread via the trade routes, the cultures of Asia intertwined.

Neolithic Revolution

in a span of several thousand years from approximately 8000 BCE to 3000 BCE, groups of people moved from nomadic lifestyles to agricultural lifestyles and town and city life. This transition period is often called the Neolithic ("New Stone") Revolution or the Agricultural Revolution. People still lived in relatively small, independent groups or communities. When people figured out how to cultivate plants, they could stay in the same place, as long as there was good soil and a stable source of water. Because they also knew how to domesticate animals and use simple tools, they could rely on a relatively varied and constant supply of food, and this encouraged them to stay in the same place.

Torah

its author is Moses. The Jewish bible that is made up of the first five books of the Old Testament.

Ashoka Maurya

known for ruthless conquering of India, later converted to Buddhism and helped spread Buddhism along the roads of India. After his death, kingdom divided again and invaders from the North ruled India until the Gupta's rose to power.

Empire

larger and more aggressive states, those that conquer, rule and extract resources from other states and people. Thus empires have generally encompassed a considerable variety of peoples and cultures within a single political system, and they have often been associated with political or cultural oppression.

Ten Commandments

list of religious and moral imperatives, which, according to the Bible, was spoken by the god YHWH to Moses on Mount Sinai and engraved on two stone tablets.

Zhou

maintained many of the traditions and customs developed under the Shang Dynasty. The Zhou developed a feudal system in China. The king was the ruler of the entire empire, but because it was too big for one person to manage, nobles were given nover over smaller regions within the empire. The king gave each noble protection as long as the noble remained loyal to him. but as time passed, a number of nobles built up a lot of wealth and power within the regions under their control and eventually spilt off into independent kingdoms. Some of the most complex developed bureaucracies within their governments, which was a way of organizing government tasks by department , or bureau, so that different parts of the government could specialize and stabilize. A bureaucratic form of government remained popular in China for thousans of years. Eventually, though, fighting and warfare among the feudal kingdoms brought an end to the Zhou dynasty in 256 BCE.

Aryans

nomadic tribes from the north of the Caucasus Mountains (near the Black and Caspian Seas). Using horses and advanced weaponry, they easily defended the populations in the indus Valley. Each of the Aryan tribes migrated to India independently; over a period of time, they began to settle in the Indus Valley, where they could give up their nomadic lifestyles. The important thing to remember about the Aryan conquest of the Indus valley is the establishment of their religious beliefs on the Indian subcontinent, in particular their belief in reincarnation. The Aryans, yet another polytheistic people, recorded their beliefs and traditions in the Vedas and the Upanishads. Over centuries, these early Aryan beliefs evolved to form the basis for what later became Hinduism.

Sumer

one of the first civilizations in Mesopotamia, or specifically the cradle of civilization. This civilization likely gave rise to the earliest written language (used initially by officials to record the goods received by various temples) and successful agriculture and river management. Sumerians also developed a twelve month calendar and a math system based on units of sixty. They used geometry to survey the land and to develop architectural enhancements such as arches and columns. Sumerians were polytheistic, meaning they worshipped more than one god. Each city-state had its own god that was worshipped only by its people. In addition, there were a bunch of gods that all the city-states worshipped collectively. Sumerians built temples (ziggurats) to appease their gods. They believed that when disaster struck it was because the gods were angry.

Athens

political, commercial, and cultural center of Greek civilization. Civic decisions were made openly, after engaging in debates. All citizens were expected to participate. This practice led to Athens being regarded as the first democracy. But it's important to point out that only adult males could participate, so it was not a democracy in the modern sense of the word. Democracy in Athens did not develop immediately. As Athens grew more and more powerful, the government changed from a monarchy to an aristocracy, and finally to a democracy. Ironically, it was slavery that enabled the Greeks to develop their democracy. It was by slave labor that Greek citizens found themselves with free time to meet and vote and to create great works of art and philosophy. Slaves, obtained by various means, were the private property of their owners. They worked as laborers, domestic servants, and cultivators. Educated or skilled slaves became craftsmen and business managers. Some owners helped slaves set up small business managers. Some owners helped slaves became craftsmen and business managers. Some owners helped slaves set up small businesses and then kept apart of the profit, and in few cases, slaves who earned and saved enough money could eventually buy freedom.

Polytheism

religious belief in more than one god. The ancient Greeks, for example, practiced polytheism.

Ziggurat

stepped pyramid topped with a temple. These served as centers of ritual performance and as places for the redistribution of stored food.

Laozi:

the "Old Master" who encouraged people to give up worldly desires in favor of nature; he founded Taoism (Daoism)

Reincarnation

the Hindu or Buddhist doctrine that person may be reborn successively into one of five classes of living beings (god or human or animal or hungry ghost or denizen of hell) depending on the person's own actions

Fertile Crescent

the first area to experience a full Agricultural Revolution consisted of an area sometimes known as Southwest Asia [westward from Mesopotamia toward the Mediterranean (consisting of present-day Iraq, Syria, Israel/Palestine, Jordan, and southern Turkey). There were an extraordinary variety of wild plants and animals capable of domestication provided a rich array of species on which the now largely settled gathering and hunting people could draw.

Diaspora

the forced moving of peoples. During the years of Roman rule, the Judiac tradition gave birth to the new faith, based on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Shortly thereafter, attempts to rebel against the Romans led to the dissolution of the Hebrew states. During the Jewish Wars, the Romans deprived the Jews of their homeland, destroyed their second temple, and forced them into a diaspora that lasted until the middle of the twentieth century. While some Jews remained in the Middle East, others scattered throughout Europe, Asia, and the rest of the world.

Brahmins

the highest of the four varnas: the priestly or sacerdotal category

Monotheism

the religious belief in one god. The Hebrews, for example, believed in one god, YHWH

Confucius

the son of an aristocratic family from northern China, Confucius spent most of his life trying to gain a high position in government. But he was very strong willed, and often his thinking was at odds with state policy. As a result, he never achieved his goal. Instead, he served as an educator and political advisor, and in this role he had a tremendous influence on China. He attracted many followers, some of whom helped share his teachings, and others who collected his thoughts and sayings in the Analects, which would come to have a profound influence on Chinese thinking, both politically and culturally. Confucius believed that individuals who possessed these traits would be not only good administrators but also influential in the larger society because they would lead by example. He also was convinced to restore political and social order, morally strong individuals were required to exercise enlightened leadership. This is why Confucius did not support a particular political system, but rather favored good people running whatever system was in place. Under Confucianism, women in China were considered of secondary status, although children were taught to honor their mothers as well as their fathers.

Domestication

the taming and changing, of nature for the benefit of humankind. During the Agricultural Revolution, humans discovered the ability to domesticate animals. They also breaded plants making humans have control over them.

Metallurgy

the use of metals. From the development of copper to bronze and then to iron, the use of metallurgy allowed humans to develop stronger and more efficient weapons and tools.

Phoenicians

they established powerful naval city-states all along the Mediterranean. They developed a simple alphabet that only used 22 letters as opposed to a much more complex cuneiform.

Cuneiform

wedge shaped symbols on clay tablets representing objects, abstract ideas, sounds and syllables. Its initial use was as records of economic transactions, such as temple payments and taxes. (regarded as the world's first written language)