Chapter 1 - An Introduction to Lifespan Development - PSYC 3120
Critical Period
a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally
Naturalistic Observation
a type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation
LO 1.9 - Describe how the contextual perspective explains lifespan development.
The contextual perspective considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. The bioecological approach stresses the interrelatedness of developmental areas and the importance of broad cultural factors in human development. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the central influence on cognitive development and exerted by social interactions between members of a culture.
Experiment
a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for participants and then studies and compares the outcomes
Field Study
a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
Laboratory Study
a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant
Classical Conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
Survey Research
a type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic
Psychosexual Development
according to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, focuses on a particular biological function and body part
Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches
approaches that examine cognitive development through the lens of brain processes
Physical Development
development involving the body's physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep
Cognitive Development
development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior
Personality Development
development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span
Discontinuous Change
development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages
Humanistic Perspective
the theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior
Psychoanalytic Theory
the theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
Contextual Perspective
the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds
Evolutionary Perspective
the theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
Module 1.1
An Orientation to Lifespan Development
LO 1.14 - Identify different types of correlational studies and their relationship to cause and effect.
Correlational studies use naturalistic observation, case studies, and survey research to investigate whether certain characteristics of interest are associated with other characteristics. Some developmental researchers also make use of psychophysiological methods. Correlational studies lead to no direct conclusions about cause and effect.
LO 1.3 - Describe some of the basic influences on human development.
Each individual is subject to normative history-graded influences, normative age-graded influences, normative sociocultural-graded influences, and non-normative life events. Culture - both broad and narrow - is an important issue in lifespan development. Many aspects of development are influenced not only by broad cultural differences but also by ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic differences within a particular culture.
LO 1.18 - Describe some ethical issues that affect psychological research.
Ethical issues that affect psychological research include the protection of participants from harm, informed consent of participants, limits on the use of deception, and the maintenance of privacy.
LO 1.4 - Summarize four key issues in the field of lifespan development.
Four key issues in lifespan development are (1) whether developmental change is continuous or discontinuous; (2) whether development is largely governed by critical periods during which certain influences or experiences must occur for development to be normal; (3) whether to focus on certain particularly important periods in human development or on the entire life span; and (4) the nature-nurture controversy, which focuses on the relative importance of genetic versus environmental issues.
LO 1.1 - Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses.
Lifespan development is a scientific approach to questions about growth, change, and stability in the physical, cognitive, social, and personality characteristics at all ages from conception to death
Module 1.3
Research Methods
LO 1.13 - Describe the two major categories of lifespan development research.
Researchers test hypotheses by correlational research (to determine whether two factors are associated) and experimental research (to discover cause-and-effect relationships.)
LO 1.2 - Describe the areas that lifespan development specialists cover.
Some developmentalists focus on physical development, examining the ways in which the body's makeup helps determine behavior. Other developmental specialists examine cognitive development, seeking to understand how growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior. Still other developmental specialists focus on personality and social development. In addition to choosing to specialize in a particular topical area, developmentalists also typically look at a particular age range.
LO 1.6 - Describe how the behavioral perspective explains lifespan development.
The behavioral perspective typically concerns stimulus-response learning, exemplified by classical conditioning, the operant conditioning of Skinner, and Bandura's social-cognitive learning theory.
LO 1.10 - Describe how the evolutionary perspectives explains lifespan development.
The evolutionary perspective attributes behavior to genetic inheritance from our ancestors, contending that genes determine not only traits such as skin and eye color, but certain personality traits and social behaviors as well.
LO 1.8 - Describe how the humanistic perspective explains lifespan development.
The humanistic perspective contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior. The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will and the natural desire of humans to reach their full potential.
LO 1.5 - Describe how the psychodynamic perspective explains lifespan development.
The psychodynamic perspective is exemplified by the psychoanalytic theory of Freud and the psychosocial theory of Erikson. Freud focused attention on the unconscious and on stages through which children must pass successfully to avoid harmful fixations. Erikson identified eight distinct stages of development, each characterized by a conflict, or crisis, to work out.
LO 1.11 - Discuss the value of applying multiple perspectives to lifespan development.
The various theoretical perspectives provide different ways of looking at development. An eclectic approach paints a more complete picture of the ways humans change over the life span.
Module 1.2
Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development
LO 1.16 - Distinguish between theoretical research and applied research.
Theoretical research is designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge, while applied research is meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems
LO 1.12 - Describe the role that theories and hypotheses play in the study of development.
Theories are broad explanations of facts or phenomena of interest, based on a systematic integration of prior findings and theories. Hypotheses are theory-based predictions that can be tested. The process of posing and answering questions systematically is called the scientific method.
LO 1.17 - Compare longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, and sequential research.
To measure change across human ages, researchers use longitudinal studies of the same participants over time, cross-sectional studies of different-age participants conducted at one time, and sequential studies of different-age participants at several points in time.
LO 1.15 - Explain the main features of an experiment.
Typically, experimental research studies are conducted on participants in a treatment group who receive the experimental treatment and participants in a control group who do not. Following the treatment, differences between the two groups can help the experimenter to determine the effects of the treatment. The independent variable is the variable that researchers manipulate in the experiment, whereas the dependent variable is the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation. Experiments may be conducted in a laboratory or in a real-world setting.
LO 1.7 - Describe how the cognitive perspective explains lifespan development.
Within the cognitive perspective, the most notable theorist is Piaget, who identified developmental stages through which all children are assumed to pass. Each stage involves qualitative differences in thinking. In contrast, information processing approaches attribute cognitive growth to quantitative changes in mental processes and capacities, and cognitive neuroscience approaches focus on biological brain processes.
Operant Conditioning
a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences
Behavior Modification
a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
Cohort
a group of people born at around the same time in the same place
Sensitive Period
a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences
Hypothesis
a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested
Theories
explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationship among an organized set of facts or principles
Continuous Change
gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels
Social-Cognitive Learning Theory
learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model
Information Processing Approaches
models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use and store information
Theoretical Research
research designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge
Experimental Research
research designed to discover casual relationships between various factors
Cross-sectional Research
research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time
Sequential Studies
research in which researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time
Longitudinal Research
research in which the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age
Applied Research
research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems
Psychophysiological Methods
research that focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior
Correlational Research
research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists
Case Study
study that involves extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals
Psychodynamic Perspective
the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control
Behavioral Perspective
the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
Sociocultural Theory
the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
Psychosocial Development
the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understanding of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society
Cognitive Perspective
the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world
Lifespan Development
the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire lifespan
Sample
the group of participants chosen for the experiment
Bioecological Perspective
the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals
Maturation
the predetermined unfolding of genetic information
Scientific Method
the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data
Independent Variable
the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment
Dependent Variable
the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation
Social Development
the way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life
