chapter 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 ant 101 summary and review

Explain the relationship between broad-spectrum collecting, sedentarism, and population growth in terms of preagricultural developments

- In the period immediately before plants and animals were domesticated, there seems to have been a shift in many areas of the world to less dependence on big game hunting and greater dependence on what is called broad-spectrum collecting. • The broad spectrum of available resources frequently included aquatic resources such as fish and shellfish and a variety of wild plants, deer, and other game. • Climatic changes may have been partly responsible for the change to broad-spectrum collecting. • In Europe, the Near East, Africa, and Peru, the switch to broad-spectrum collecting seems to be associated with more permanent communities. But in areas of Mesoamerica, domestication of plants and animals may have preceded permanent settlements.

Explain why culture is integrated, patterned, and cumulative.

• A culture that is mostly integrated is one in which elements or traits are mostly adjusted to or consis-tent with one another. • Integration may be influenced by psychological pro-cesses and by people transferring experiences from one area of life to another. • Cultural traits may become patterned through adap-tation. Customs that diminish the survival chances of a society are not likely to persist. However, what may be adaptive in one environment may not be adaptive in another. • The cumulative nature of human culture makes it pos-sible to produce complex technology and share com-plex understanding that builds on previous knowledge.

Discuss anthropological findings regarding childhood.

• A long period in which the young are dependent on parents and other caretakers is common in all human societies. • Anthropologists look at children as agents and actors, not just as recipients of socialization. Socialization is the development, through the influ-ence of parents and others, of attitudes, values, and behavior patterns in children that conform to cul-tural expectations. • Socialization is not always directive and explicit. Much of children's learning is by "observing and pitching in." • Societies have not only specific ideas about particu-lar aspects of childrearing but also broader theories about childhood. Many of these belief systems and practices are assumed to be adaptive for survival in particular environments. • Parents within a culture have culturally patterned ideas about childrearing called ethnotheories. Researchers try to uncover these theories, but also observe actual parent-child behavior, and try to de-termine whether outcomes in children match what the parents try to achieve. • Researchers have suggested that genetic or physi-ological factors in populations predispose them to personality characteristics that are reflected in babies. But babies' behavior may have nongenetic explanations such as the mother's health, learning in the womb, and malnutrition.

Discuss the relationship between language and culture.

• A society's language may reflect its corresponding culture in lexical content or vocabulary. • Both cultural and biological factors influence the number of basic color terms. Societies tend to have six or more color terms only when they are relatively far from the equator and only when their cultures are more technologically specialized. • Ignoring terms that specialists use within a society, it seems that all languages have a core vocabulary of about the same size. • Current evidence supports the idea that the vo-cabulary of a language reflects the everyday dis-tinctions important in the society. This finding may also be true of grammar. • Some evidence supports the Sapir-Whorf or linguistic relativity hypothesis that language affects how individuals in a society perceive and conceive reality, but more research is needed.

Discuss explanations for the decline and collapse of states.

• All ancient states collapsed eventually. As with theories for the origin of states, no single explana-tion seems to fit all or even most of the situations. Research into this question may have implications for prolonging the lives of our modern state systems. • Four possible reasons may partially explain the col-lapse of a state: (1) environmental degradation, (2) human behavior that may increase the incidence of disease, (3) overextension that may deplete resources, and (4) internal conflict that results from leaders' mismanagement or exploitation.

Characterize what anthropologists predict about future cultural diversity.

• Although modern transportation and communication facilitate the rapid spread of some cultural character-istics to all parts of the globe, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the world will end up the same culturally. • Many people are affirming ethnic identities in a process that often involves deliberately introducing cultural difference. • Many more cultural groups are nearer to the equator than in very northern and southern latitudes, possibly associated with levels of greater environmental predictability.

Explain how archaeologists infer that a particular people in the past had social classes, cities, or a centralized government.

• Archaeologists rather than historians have studied the most ancient civilizations because those civiliza-tions evolved before the advent of writing. • Archaeologists generally assume that burial finds reflecting inequality in death reflect inequality in life, at least in status and perhaps also in wealth and power. When archaeologists find other substantial differences, as in house size and furnishings, they can confirm that the society had different socioeco-nomic classes of people. • Archaeologists do not always agree on how a state should be defined, but most seem to agree that hierarchical and centralized decision making that af-fects a substantial population is the key criterion. • Most states have cities with public buildings, full-time craft and religious specialists, an official art style, and a hierarchical social structure topped by an elite class from which the leaders are drawn. • Most states maintain power with a monopoly on the use of force. The state uses force or the threat of force to tax its population and to draft people for work or war.

Describe direct and indirect cultural constraints and how they relate to norms.

• Because members of a culture generally conform to that culture, they are not always aware of being constrained by its standards and rules for acceptable behavior, which social scientists refer to as norms. • Cultural constraints can be direct or indirect.

Describe the first cities and states in Asia, Africa, and North and South America.

• City and states arose early on the African, Asian, South American, and North American continents. • In Africa, the Nile Valley in Egypt with a capital at Memphis supported a population that lived in self-sufficient villages; later states built the pyramids. The Axum state in Ethiopia was a center of trade with multistory stone residences. Sub-Saharan Africa comprised a succession of city-states. • In Asia, the Harappan civilization in the Indus Valley of India controlled enormous territory with major cities built on similar patterns that included municipal water and sewage systems. The Shang dynasty in China was a stratified and specialized state society with religious, economic, and administrative unification and a distinctive art style. • In South America, state societies near present-day Lima, Peru, had independent cities, plazas, and large pyramids, and those in the Andes had complex agricultural systems with irrigation, a widespread system of religious symbols and beliefs, and art. • In North America, Cahokia, near present-day St. Louis, was a huge settlement with a powerful chiefdom, religious and craft specialists, and social stratification.

Identify environmental restraints on food-getting.

• Cross-cultural evidence indicates that neither forag-ing nor food production is significantly associated with any particular type of habitat. • Foragers farther from the equator depend much more on animals and fish; those closer to the equator depend more on plants. It is thought that foragers in tropical forests could not survive without the carbo-hydrates they obtain from agriculturalists. • Approximately 80 percent of all societies that practice horticulture or simple agriculture are in the tropics, whereas 75 percent of all societies that practice intensive agriculture are not in tropical forest environments; an exception is tropical rice paddies. Pastoralism is typically practiced in grass-land regions. • The physical environment does not by itself account for the system of food-getting in an area; technological, social, and political factors rather than environmental factors mostly determine food-getting practices in a given environment.

Discuss the concept of culture as used in anthropology, its salient properties, and controversies surrounding the concept of culture.

• Culture is the set of learned behaviors and ideas (including beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals) that are characteristic of a particular society or other social group. • Behaviors can also produce products or material culture, including houses, musical instruments, and tools that are the products of customary behavior. • Anthropologists have traditionally been con-cerned with the cultural characteristics of societies. Societies may or may not correspond to countries; many countries, particularly newer ones, contain many societies. • The terms society and culture are not synonymous. Society refers to a group of people; culture refers to the learned and shared behaviors, ideas, and characteristic of those people. • Even when anthropologists refer to something as cultural, there is always individual variation, and not everyone in a society shares a particular cultural characteristic of that society. • For something to be considered cultural, it must be not only shared but also learned. • Cognitive anthropologists are most likely to say that culture refers not to behaviors but to the rules and ideas behind them, and that culture therefore resides in people's heads. However, in this text, we define culture as also including both behavior and the products of behavior. • Another view is that culture is an entity, a force, that profoundly affects the individuals who live within its influence.

Describe and give examples of ethnogenesis, or the emergence of new cultures.

• Despite the trend of globalization, many cultures still vary considerably, and new cultures have been created—a process called ethnogenesis. • In particular, cases of violent events such as depopulation, relocation, enslavement, and genocide can lead to ethnogenesis.

Discuss the domestication of plants and animals in the Near East, Mesoamerica, and elsewhere in the world.

• Domestication refers to changes in plants and ani-mals that make them more useful to humans. Often, without human assistance, domesticated plants and animals cannot reproduce. Neolithic cultures reflect the presence of domestication. • The earliest evidence of domestication comes from the Near East at about 8000 b.c.e • In the New World, early areas of cultivation and domestication include the highlands of Mesoamerica (about 7000 b.c.e.), the Central Andes around Peru (about the same time but perhaps even earlier), and the Eastern Woodlands of North America (about 2000 b.c.e.). • There were also probably independent centers of do-mestication in other areas of the Old World—China, Southeast Asia (what is now Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam), New Guinea, and Africa—sometime around or after 6000 b.c.e.

Describe the emergence of cities and states in southern Iraq.

• Early state societies arose in what is now southern Iraq and southwestern Iran. • Burial sites from the formative era reflect differences in status. Villages specialized in the production of particular goods. Temples may have been centers of political and religious authority for several com-munities. Chiefdoms, each having authority over several villages, may have developed. • The state of Sumer in southern Iraq was unified under a single government just after 3000 b.c.e. It had writing, large urban centers, imposing temples, codified laws, a standing army, wide trade networks, a complex irrigation system, and a high degree of craft specialization.

Identify attitudes that hinder the study of cultures.

• Ethnocentrism—a view of one's cultural behaviors and attitudes as correct and those of other cultures as immoral or inferior—can bias objectively observ-ing another culture. • Ethnocentrism also keeps a person from understand-ing his or her own customs. • Glorification of one's own culture or that of another also hinders effective anthropological study

Compare and contrast the allocation of resources among foragers, horticulturalists, intensive agriculturalists, and pastoralists, and discuss how colonialism and the state have affected that allocation

• Every society has access to natural resources—land, water, plants, animals, minerals—and cultural rules for determining who has access to particular re-sources. Societies differ in their rules for land access, but the differences generally relate to a society's food-getting method. • In food-collecting societies individual or family ownership of land is generally lacking. If there is ownership, it tends to be by collective groups such as kinship groups or through communities. Territoriality is stronger when the plants and ani-mals collected are predictably located and abundant. • Horticulturalist societies also tend to lack individual or family ownership probably because their tech-nologies do not enable them to effectively use the same land permanently, but they are more likely to assign individuals or families use of a particular plot of land. • Pastoralists often combine the adaptive habits of both foragers and horticulturalists because they need large territories for grazing herds. While they tend to hold grazing land communally, pastoralists custom-arily own their herds individually. • Individual ownership of land resources is com-mon among intensive agriculturalists. However, some communist and socialist nations undertake intensive agriculture by forming state-run agricultural collectives. • Almost universally worldwide, colonial conquerors and settlers from expanding state societies have taken land from the native people. Typically, state authorities do not like communal land-use systems and see mobile pastoralists as difficult to control. • Every society has a technology, a set of tools, constructions, and skills with which it con-verts resources into food and other goods. Technological access varies, generally being widespread among forager and horticultural societies, but not among industrial or postindus-trial societies.

Describe and give examples of how cultures change through discovery and invention, diffusion, and acculturation.

• Examining the history of a society will reveal that its culture has changed over time. Consequently, in de-scribing a culture, it is important to understand that a description pertains to a particular time period. • A good deal of culture change may be stimulated by changes in the external environment. • Inventions and discoveries (including behavior and ideas), when accepted and regularly used by a so-ciety, will change the culture. These inventions and discoveries might be unintentional or intentional. • Relatively little is known about why some people are more innovative than others. The ability to inno-vate may depend in part on such individual charac-teristics as high intelligence and creativity. Creativity may be influenced by social conditions. • In general, people are more likely to adopt a behavior or innovation as it becomes more com-mon. The speed with which an innovation is ad-opted may depend partly on how new behaviors and ideas are typically transmitted—or taught—in a society. • New cultural elements in one society may come from another society. Innovation occurring in this way is called diffusion. The three basic patterns of diffusion are direct contact, intermediate contact, and stimulus diffusion. • Diffusion is a selective process. New traits and elements will be rejected or accepted depending on complex variables. • Acculturation is another type of change that occurs when different cultural groups come into intensive contact. Acculturation occurs primarily when one of the two societies in contact is more powerful than the other. • One of the most drastic and rapid ways a culture can change is as a result of revolution—replacement, usually violent, of a country's rulers. • The sources of revolution may be mostly internal or partly external. Revolutions are not always success-ful in their goals, nor necessarily in bringing about culture change. • Not all people who are suppressed, conquered, or colonialized eventually rebel against established au-thority. Revolutions are more likely in countries that are just becoming industrialized.

Describe foraging and complex foraging, and identify the general societal features associated with food collecting.

• Foraging—hunting, gathering, and fishing—depends on wild plants and animals and is the oldest human food-getting technology. • People in most foraging societies live in small com-munities that are nomadic or seminomadic. Division of labor is usually only along age and gender lines, personal possessions and land rights are limited, people are usually not differentiated by class, and political leadership is informal. • Complex foraging societies have bigger and more permanent communities as well as more social inequality; they tend to depend heavily on fishing. These societies tend to have higher population densities, food storage, occupational specialization, resource ownership, slavery, and competitiveness.

Explain the three general types of systems for distributing goods and services (reciprocity, redistribution, and market or commercial exchange).

• Goods and services can be classified under three gen-eral types of systems: reciprocity, redistribution, and market or commercial exchange. The predominant type is usually associated with a society's food-getting technology and level of economic development. • Reciprocity systems do not involve money. Sharing may (a) create social relationships that ensure help when needed, (b) equalize distribution of goods within and between communities, and (c) be most likely when resources are unpredictable. • In redistribution systems, one person or agency ac-cumulates goods or labor for the purpose of later distribution. Redistribution is found in all societies but is an important mechanism only in societies that have political hierarchies. • Market or commercial exchange involves the buying and selling of goods and transactions of labor, land, rent-als, and credit. General-purpose money provides an ob-jective value for all goods and services. Special-purpose money can be used for only some goods and services. • Societies may begin to use money when trade and bar-ter increases or when political authorities demand non-commercial fees such as taxes. Social bonds between individuals may become less kinlike in more complex and populated societies, making reciprocity less likely.

Discuss the major components of descriptive linguistics (phonology, morphology, and syntax) and the key findings in each of these areas.

• Grammar to the linguist consists of the actual, often unconscious, principles that predict how most peo-ple talk, which linguists study through phonology, morphology, and syntax. • Even though what people say is sometimes contradicted by their observed behavior, language is important to understanding the beliefs, attitudes, values, and worldview of a people. In many cases, behaviors also cannot be readily understood without verbal interpretation. • Linguists studying phonology write down speech utterances as sound sequences and then try to iden-tify which sounds affect meaning, which sound se-quences are allowed in a language, and what usually unconscious rules predict those sequences. • Morphology is the study of sequences of sounds that have meaning. The smallest unit of language that has a meaning is called a morph. One or more morphs with the same meaning may make up a morpheme. • The lexicon of a language consists of words and morphs and their meanings. A free morpheme can be a separate word. A bound morpheme displays its meaning only when attached to another morpheme. • Syntax reflects the rules that predict how phrases and sentences are generally formed. Speakers of a language follow implicit rules of syntax but are not usually consciously aware of them. The linguist's description of the syntax of a language makes these rules explicit

Describe how historical linguistics establishes historical relationships between languages and language families.

• Historical linguists focus on how languages change over time. Linguists can reconstruct changes that have occurred in a language, written or unwritten, by comparing contemporary languages that are similar. • Common ancestry, contact between speech commu-nities, and the limited processes of linguistic change may explain why languages show similarities. • Languages that derive from the same protolanguage are called a language family. Most languages spoken today can be grouped into fewer than 30 families. Linguists still can reconstruct many features of a protolanguage by comparing the derived languages. • The location of a protolanguage may be suggested by the words for plants and animals in the derived languages. The locations of those animals and plants thousands of years ago may help researchers deci-pher the origins of the protolanguage.

Describe the various forms of food production (horticulture, intensive agriculture, and pastoralism), and identify the general societal features associated with each.

• Horticultural societies grow crops of all kinds with relatively simple tools and methods and do not permanently cultivate fields. Many also hunt or fish; a few are nomadic for part of the year. Horticultural societies tend to be larger, more sedentary, and more densely populated than foragers, and they tend to exhibit the beginnings of social differentiation. • Intensive agricultural societies use techniques that enable them to cultivate fields permanently, in-cluding fertilization, crop rotation, irrigation, and plowing under stubble. Societies using intensive agriculture are more likely than horticulturalists to have towns and cities, a high degree of craft special-ization, complex political organization, and large differences in wealth and power. • Societies using pastoralism depend mostly on do-mesticated herds of animals that feed on natural pasture. They tend to be found in drought-prone regions. People in pastoral societies mostly live in small communities that are typically nomadic or seminomadic. Pastoral people typically do not eat their animals but use their milk and blood; they get other foods from trade with agricultural groups.

Identify the origins of writing and literacy, and assess the impact of writing and literacy on culture and communication.

• Humans spent most of their history on earth without written language, and many important human achievements predate written language. However, far more information and literature can be preserved for a longer period of time with a writing system. • The earliest writing systems are only about 6,000 years old and are associated with early cities and states. Early writing is associated with systematic record-keeping—keeping of ledgers for inventories of goods and transactions. • Universal literacy is far from achieved today. A high degree of literacy is usually considered superior to illiteracy. • As more accumulated knowledge is written and stored, attainment of literacy in those written languages will be increasingly critical to success. Texts convey not only practical knowledge but also attitudes, beliefs, and values characteristic of the related culture.

Describe the emergence of cities and states in Mesoamerica.

• In the formative period, small, autonomous farming villages shifted from the hilly slopes to the floor of the Teotihuacán Valley, probably in association with the use of irrigation. Small "elite" centers emerged, each having a raised platform that supported tem-ples and residences. • The city and state of Teotihuacán developed somewhat later in the Valley of Mexico and likely influenced much of Mesoamerica. Teotihuacán-style pottery and architectural elements are spread extensively, and graves include significant amounts of foreign goods. Streets and build-ings were laid out in a grid pattern that involved much planning. • The earliest city-state in Mesoamerica developed in the Valley of Oaxaca, with a capital at Monte Albán. It may have originally been founded in the late for-mative period as a neutral place where different po-litical units in the valley could coordinate activities affecting the whole valley. • Mayan state societies were densely populated and dependent on intensive agriculture. Their societies may have been more urban and complex than previ-ously thought.

Discuss and give examples of individuals as agents of social change.

• Individuals sometimes can bring about substantial culture change, but more often a whole cohort of individuals are faced with similar circumstances and change in similar directions. • When enough individuals change, culture will change.

Define communication, and compare and contrast human and nonhuman communication.

• Information is exchanged or imparted in many ways, but all systems of communication require a common and shared system of symbols, signs, or behaviors. • Humans rely heavily on spoken language to communicate, and it is probably the major way culture is transmitted. Any system of language consists of publicly accepted symbols by which individuals try to share private experiences and thoughts, but human language is much more than symbolic communication. • All human languages are thought to use a large set of symbols that can be combined to produce new mean-ings (open system), communicate about past and future events, apply linguistic rules for combinations of sounds, and have many kinds of discourse. • Human communication happens directly through spoken language; indirectly through "body lan-guage"; with nonverbal symbolic systems, such as writing, algebraic equations, musical scores, and road signs; and through art, music, and dance. • Some direct nonverbal communication appears to be universal in humans. Humans worldwide seem able to recognize a happy, sad, surprised, angry, disgusted, or afraid face. But many body and hand gestures are not universal. • Other animal species communicate through sound, chemicals, and body movement. Some animals use symbolic communication; there is general agreement that humans have much more complexity in their systems of communica-tion, but there is debate about how profound the differences are.

Describe cross-cultural variations in childrearing and their implications for behavior and psychological development.

• Parental responsiveness to infants and baby-holding vary cross-culturally. Parents in industrial-ized societies respond and/or hold babies less often or less quickly than do parents in preindustrialized societies where safety and survival may be more of a concern. • Cross-culturally, parent-child play is rare. Lack of parent-child play may be explained by the need for parents to create emotional distance in societies where threats to survival are high. Some societal eth-notheories suggest to parents that not playing may be better than playing. • In societies where parents have little leisure time, rejection of children is more likely. In general, leisure time probably decreases as cultural complexity in-creases. Across cultures, children tend to be hostile and aggressive when they are neglected and not treated affectionately by their parents. • Agricultural and herding societies tend to stress re-sponsibility and obedience; hunter-gatherer societies tend to stress self-reliance and assertiveness. Theory suggests that departures from routine may risk food supplies of agricultural and herding societies more than that of hunter-gatherer societies; if so, this makes compliance more adaptive for agriculturalists and herders. • Societies differ considerably in their attitudes to-ward aggression in children. A society's involvement in war cross-culturally predicts parental encourage-ment of aggression, particularly in boys. • "Tight" societies have strong behavior norms and considerable punishment for norm violations; "looser" societies have more lenient norms and less strict punishments. Tight societies tend to be densely populated agricultural societies with higher stresses and risks. • Assigning tasks to children varies across cultures. Task settings not only put children in contact with dif-ferent groups of people, such as adults and younger children, but children may learn to exhibit different behaviors depending upon setting and tasks. • Schooling appears to affect many aspects of cogni-tive performance. Cultural expectations shape teach-ing approaches as well as school performance.

Identify and explain consequences of state formation.

• Populations grow and become concentrated in cities. • More efficient agriculture allows many people to be removed from food production. As a result, art, music, literature, and organized religion can develop and flourish. • Militaristic expansion and conquest occurs, and lead-ers wield power over their own populations. An un-derclass of poor and often unhealthy people emerges. • Epidemic disease and periodic famine affect the population, often resulting from dense populations and issues with food production.

Explain the different types of economic production and economic exchange and their effect on labor

• Production is the conversion of resources through labor into food, tools, and other goods. • In domestic production, the family controls conver-sion of resources. In tributary production, people pay a tribute of labor or goods to an authority for access to land. In industrial production, people labor as wage earners. In post-industrial production, in-formation and services are the main products. • People in subsistence economies with a domestic mode of production often work less than people in commercial economies with tributary or industrial modes of production and tend not to produce more than they need. • People may be motivated to work harder than they have to for subsistence to gain social respect or es-teem or to satisfy a need for achievement, especially in commercial economies. • Forms of forced labor are found in more complex societies and can be indirect (taxation and corvée) or direct (slavery). • Many societies divide labor only by gender and age; other societies have more complex specialization. Horticultural societies may have some part-time specialists. Societies with intensive agriculture have some full-time specialists, and industrialized societ-ies have many. • In many food-collecting and horticultural societies, there is little formal organization of work. The need to coordinate labor is highest in industrialized societies. • Optimal foraging theory assumes that individuals seek to maximize the returns, in calories and nutri-ents, on their labor by deciding which animals and plants to hunt or collect.

Critically analyze the consequences of food production.

• Regardless of why food production originated, it seems to have had important consequences for human life. • Plant and animal domestication led to substantial increases in population. • A greater reliance on agriculture led to an increase in sedentarism in many areas. • Populations that relied heavily on agriculture were less healthy compared with earlier foraging populations. • In more permanent villages, houses and furnishings became more elaborate, people began to make textiles and to paint pottery, long-distance trade seemed to increase, and political assemblies formed.

Explain psychological variability in adults

• Some anthropologists believe that the Western concept of self is quite different from non-Western concepts; others think that there is not enough systematic study of individuals to come to strong conclusions. • Depending on adaptational requirements, societies may select and train for different perceptual and cognitive processes such as field independence and Think on it 1. Do you think indulging children makes them more or less self-reliant as adults? Why do you think so? 2. What may explain adolescent rebelliousness? 3. Do you think there is a similar relationship between occupation and personality? If so, why? field dependence. Individuals in hunting communi-ties tend to be field independent; those in agricul-tural communities, field dependent. • Societies vary markedly in the degree to which adults express anger and act aggressively toward others. Aggression may be related to war and to a group's economy

Describe universals in human psychological development.

• Some psychological assumptions about human de-velopment are being questioned by anthropologists. • Probable human universals in the psychological realm include the ability to create taxonomies, make binary contrasts, order phenomena, use logical operators (e.g., and, not, equals), plan for the future, and have an understanding of the world and what it is about. • With regard to ideas about people, it may be univer-sal to have a concept of the self; to recognize faces; to try to discern others' intentions from facial clues, utterances, and actions; and to imagine what others are thinking. • Human universals for emotion may include abil-ity to empathize; to communicate, recognize, hide, or mimic emotions; to smile when friendly and cry when in pain or unhappy; to play for fun; to show and/or feel affection, sexual attraction, and envy; and to have childhood fears. • The potential ability of children to develop some kind of healthy attachment pattern to caretakers seems to be a universal. • Stages of development may be universal but are likely tied to experience, not age. When assessing universal stages of psychological development, anthropologists must be careful to use contextually and culturally relevant assessments, especially with non-Westerners.

Discuss psychological explanations of cultural variation.

• Some theories postulate that primary institutions such as family organization and subsistence tech-niques influence personality through customary childrearing practices, which in turn give rise to cer-tain common adult personality characteristics. • It is further suggested that secondary institutions such as religion and art are shaped by common personality characteristics. Secondary institutions seem less related to the adaptive requirements of the society but may reflect and express the motives, con-flicts, and anxieties of society members.

Discuss the worldwide trend toward commercialization and its social effects

• The expansion of Western societies and the capi-talist system has led to an increasingly worldwide dependence on commercial exchange. Inevitably, social, political, and even biological and psycho-logical changes accompany such a change. • Many anthropologists have noted that with the introduction of money, customs of sharing seem to change dramatically. • Commercialization can occur when some society members move to places that offer possible work for wages, when a self-sufficient society increasingly depends on trading, and when people cultivating crops produce a surplus and sell it for cash. • Commercial systems of agriculture may become industrialized. The introduction of commercial agriculture brings several important social conse-quences, including class polarization.

Relate culture change to the process of adaptation to a changing environment

• The frequency of a new learned behavior will increase over time and become customary in a population if the people exhibiting that behavior are most likely to sur-vive and reproduce. It is possible for culture change to occur much more rapidly than genetic change. • When circumstances change, individuals are par-ticularly likely to try ideas or behaviors that are dif-ferent from those of their parents.

Critically assess the concept of cultural relativism.

• The idea of cultural relativism rejects the notion that Western cultures are at the highest or most progres-sive stage of evolution. • Cultural relativism attempts to objectively describe and understand a society's customs and ideas in the context of that society's problems and opportunities. • Following the idea of cultural relativism helps an-thropologists be alert to perspectives in other cul-tures that might challenge their own cultural beliefs about what is true and that might lead them to make moral judgments. • Approaches using cultural relativism pose conflicts with efforts to create universal standards of human rights. However, universal human rights advo-cates might increase their persuasiveness if they are aware of the viewpoints and values within a particular culture.

Evaluate the major theories about the origin of the state

• The irrigation theory suggests that the admin-istrative needs of maintaining extensive irriga-tion systems may have been the impetus for state formation. • The circumscription theory suggests that states emerge when competition and warfare in circum-scribed areas lead to the subordination of defeated groups, which are obliged to submit to the control of the most powerful group. • Theories involving trade suggest that the orga-nizational requirements of producing exportable items, redistributing imported items, and defend-ing trading parties would foster state formation. • At this point, no one theory is able to explain the formation of every state. Perhaps different organi-zational requirements in different areas all favored centralized government.

Discuss the relationship between ways of speaking and issues of class, gender, and ethnicity.

• The main goal of an ethnography of speaking is to find cultural and subcultural patterns of speech variation in different social contexts. • Social status and whom a person is talking to may greatly affect what a person says and how it is said. Social status may predict variation in speech from "standard" speech, use and differentiation of certain words, and terms of address. • In many societies, the speech of men and women differs, particularly in terms of word choice, pronun-ciation, intonation, and phrasing. Some researchers are suggesting that these differences may be related to prestige and power. • In code-switching, speakers who know two or more languages in common purposefully use words and phrases from both languages in their speech. Each community may have its own rules for code-switching, and variations in practice can depend on political and historical context.

Evaluate the problems and opportunities posed by globalization.

• The process of globalization has resulted in the worldwide spread of cultural features, particularly in the domain of economics and inter-national trade. • In some ways, cultures are changing in similar direc-tions. They have become more commercial, more urban, and more international. • A form of continental diffusion between Asia, Africa, and Europe had been occurring since at least the beginning of written history, in large part because of the scope and power of empires. • Worldwide diffusion of a culture trait does not mean that it is incorporated in exactly the same way among societies, and the spread of certain products and activities through globalization does not mean that change happens in the same way everywhere. • Negative effects of globalization include unem-ployment, native peoples' loss of land, increasing class inequality, undernutrition and starvation, and spread of disease. • Positive effects of globalization include increases in life expectancy and literacy, less warfare, and growth of middle classes, which have become agents of social change. • Movement of ideas, art, music, and food among cultures tends to be reciprocal

Evaluate theories for why food production developed.

• Theories about why food production originated remain controversial, but most archaeologists think that conditions must have pushed people to switch from collecting to producing food rather than food production being a voluntary choice. • One possible cause of food production may have been population growth in regions of bountiful wild resources, pushing people to move to marginal areas where they tried to reproduce their former abundance. • Another cause of food production was hotter and drier summers and colder winters, favoring seden-tarism near seasonal stands of wild grain; resulting population growth may have forced people to plant crops and raise animals to support themselves. • However, climate change or population pres-sure apparently did not lead to domestication in Mesoamerica, but humans in that area seem to have actively turned to domestication to obtain more of the most desired or useful plant species.

Explain how the study of creole and pidgin languages and of children's acquisition of language might tell us something about the origins of language.

• Unambiguous evidence of human language dates back to 5,000 years ago, but it likely existed 50,000 years ago, and may possibly have been used by humans as well Neandertals. • Actual development of language is neither completely biologically determined nor dependent on a system of writing. Languages of simpler societies are equally as complex as those of developed societies. • All languages possess the amount of vocabulary their speakers need, and all languages expand in response to cultural changes. • Pidgin languages combine features of various languages but without basic components such as prepositions or auxiliary verbs. They may or may not develop into full languages • Pidgin languages that develop further (often through children) become creole languages, having grammar different from the source languages. Some argue that creole languages throughout the world have striking grammar similarities and may resem-ble early human languages. • A child is apparently equipped from birth with the capacity to reproduce all the sounds used by the world's languages and to learn any system of gram-mar, an ability that gives way to cultural influences around the age of 1 year.

Describe the methods by which anthropologists describe cultures.

• Understanding what is cultural involves (a) separating what is shared from what is individually variable and (b) understanding whether common behaviors and ideas are learned. • Variations in behavior are typically confined within socially acceptable limits. • Anthropologists try to distinguish actual behavior from ideal cultural traits—the ideas about how people in particular situations ought to feel and behave. Ideal cultural traits may differ from actual behavior because the ideal is based on the way society used to be. • When a domain of behavior includes many individual variations or when the people studied are unaware of their pattern of behavior, the anthropologist may need to collect information from a larger sample of indi-viduals to establish what the cultural trait is. • Anthropologists suspect that something is largely learned if it varies from society to society and is ge-netically influenced when it is found in all societies.

Identify the processes by which languages diverge.

• When groups speaking the same language lose com-munication with one another through physical or social separation, they accumulate small changes in phonol-ogy, morphology, and syntax that lead to dialects and, with continued separation, to separate languages. • Isolation leads to divergence between speech communities, and contact leads to resemblance. Conquest and colonization often promote extensive and rapid linguistic borrowing or total replacement. Generally, words are borrowed more commonly than grammar.