Chapter 10, Chapter 8, Chapter 12, Chapter 17, chapter 18
Authoritative
High warmth Firm, consistent, coupled with discussion control
Permissive
High warmth Low control
A minority of popular children do not show the prosocial and empathetic characteristics typical of popular children.
Often labeled by peers and teachers as tough, these children are socially skilled yet show antisocial and aggressive behavior. Aggressive popular children show social competencies similar to prosocial popular children, yet also share many characteristics of children who are rejected by their peers
Strengthen parenting and families
Provide parents with support, parenting education, and other resources to help them improve the bond with their child, reducing children's attention-seeking behaviors.
Gender differences
Psychological or behavioral differences between males and females
Children comply with the abuser
Some are bribed by gifts or privileges and are told that they are special and that the activity is a secret that they share. - are intimidated and threatened by physical harm and reprisal for noncompliance or for telling another adult.
Eric mentions that his biological son, Chase, who is 13 years old, has found it difficult to establish a relationship with Eric's current wife, Lisa. This is consistent with the following research findings:
Stepmothers often find the role to be challenging and ill-defined, which can make relationships with stepchildren difficult.
Early identification
Train parents and teachers to recognize the risk factors and early signs of sexual abuse and report suspicions to law enforcement and child protection agencies.
mastery orientation - who experiences a strong one
a belief that success stems from trying hard and that failures are influenced by factors that can be controlled , such as effort, and they focus on changing or adapting their behavior when faced with challenges - children who have internal explanations and a growth mindset - teachers influence this too
What does the concept known as school refusal describe?
a child who is distressed about things happening at school
Most researchers today take a neutral stance, viewing divorce as
a common transition that many children experience and that poses some challenges to adjustment. Research has suggested that divorce has some negative effects on children's adjustment, such as internalizing and externalizing problems, but the effects are small
As self-concept becomes more differentiated
about 9 y/o develop a physical (attributes and attractiveness) self-concept, academic self-concept, athletic self-concept, social concept, and beliefs about behavioral conduct
The parent-child relationship transforms
as parents adapt their parenting styles to match their children's increased ability to reason and desire for independence. - Parents tend to use less direct management and instead begin to share power
Older children become more upset
at losing a friend and find making friends more challenging than do young children (others adjust well by replacing them) - may cause depression, loneliness, guilt, anger, anxiety, and acting-out behaviors, yet children with psychosocial problems are also at risk to experience friendship loss and, in turn, show poor adjustment
multiple school absences lead to children who are
at risk for poor adjustment
withdrawn-rejected children
characteristics: passive, timid, and emotional awkward Socially withdrawn, isolate themselves from others Anxious Poor social skills Fear being disliked by peers Misinterpret other children's behaviors and motives outcomes: Poor academic achievement Increased physical and relational aggression over time Withdrawal and loneliness
Rejected children show two patterns of behavior,
characterized by either aggression or withdrawal.
Which type of household describes partners who live together and are not married?
cohabiting
. About 20% of children living in cohabiting families are poor,
compared with about 10% of children from two-parent married households and nearly 40% of children in single-parent households - minorities more likely to be poor
Children who show physically aggressive forms of bullying often
demonstrate hyperactive behavior, have poor school achievement, perceive less support from teachers than do other children, and may show higher rates of depression than other children.
Marty is in middle school. His parents recently divorced, and he has been acting out at home and at school. He becomes easily frustrated, shuts down, and is often moody throughout the day. According to research on the effects of divorce on boys, if Marty is like a typical boy his age, these problems will
drop over the first year after the divorce
effective prevention programs
educate children about their bodies and their right to not be touched. When children are exposed to school-based education programs that help them learn how to recognize inappropriate touches, they are more apt to report them to teachers and other adults
Authoritative parents who promote their children's autonomy
encourage their children to explore their environment, and permit them to take an active role in solving their own problems foster a mastery orientation
About 40% of marriages in the United States
end in divorce within 15 years
In middle to late childhood, friends are
expected to be loyal and stick up for each other. Violations of trust, such as divulging secrets, breaking promises, and not helping a friend in need, can break up a friendship.
differences in child well-being across family types are strongly influenced by
family income, access to resources, and the stresses that accompany economic difficulties
Estimated rates of bullying and victimization range
from 15% to 25% of children in Australia, Austria, England, Finland, Germany, Norway, and the United States.
An estimated 37% of LGBT-identified adults
have a child at some time in their lives
Popular children tend to
have a variety of positive characteristics, including helpfulness, trustworthiness, assertiveness, and prosocial habits. They are skilled in emotional regulation and social information processing. That is, popular children are good at reading social situations, problem solving, self-disclosure, and conflict resolution.
80% of children in the United States
have at least one sibling, In contrast, China has many one-child families
older children
have the ability to take other people's perspectives which enables them to consider abilities objectively. - b/c they evaluate and compare themselves to others influencing their sense of competence - also receive feedback from others
About one fourth of single-parent households are
headed by men,
children's knowledge of their culture when they are members of a minority group and are ostracized from their community may create
heightened sensitivity to oppression and lead to higher levels of depression and delinquency.
Narcissism causes :
overpraises performances, over-encourages them to stand out, making them think their superior to others
positive self-esteem attributes
positive parent-child interactions secure attachment to parents
Sexual abuse victims are at risk to display symptoms of
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), an anxiety disorder includes flashbacks, nightmares, and feelings of helplessness. Note that not all children who experience traumatic events such as sexual abuse experience dire outcomes. Some children function well and even thrive despite adversity, as we will see later in this chapter.
After divorce, children are typically
raised by their mothers and experience a drop in income that influences their access to resources and opportunities
core of self-esteem
is the internalized view of themselves as worthy individuals
students from the Pacific islands rated family, teacher, luck, and friends as more important for their best marks
less likely to adopt internal attributions (e.g., ability, effort) for their best and worst marks compared with European and Asian students.
harmful family processes, such as parental conflict, poor parent-child interactions, and ineffective parenting strategies
may precede parental divorce by as much as 8 to 12 years
Teachers who relate failure back to their students' effort are supportive of their students, and stress learning goals over performance goals are
more likely to have mastery-oriented students
self-esteem
nurtured by parental warmth - meaning they express positive emotions + shows acceptance + gives the feeling that he or she matters is influenced by the home environment in the context of warm and accepting parent-child interactions, encouragement for realistic and meaningful goals, and praise on performance When children look to outside sources to define their self-concept, this can negatively impact their self-esteem.
Effective prevention and early identification of sexual abuse rely on
training parents and teachers to recognize the signs of abuse and report suspicions to law enforcement and child protection agencies.
self concept shift from concrete descriptions of behavior to
trait-like psychological constructs such as popular, smart, and good looking - like most older children, a child's self-concept focuses on competencies and personality traits rather than specific behaviors.
Culture can influence how risk and protective factors manifest.
unusual results: over 5,000 Aboriginal children who participated in the Western Australian Aboriginal Child Health Survey showed that risk factors such as harsh parenting, family violence, and caregiver unemployment cumulatively predicted children's problems. And for these children, living in a high-SES neighborhood and demonstrating more knowledge of their culture were associated with lower levels of resilience to adversity. About 90% of Aboriginal people lived in lower-SES neighborhoods. Growing up in a more economically advantaged community may separate a child from social supports and expose the child to prejudice.
cyberbullying is associated
with anxiety, depression, academic problems, and behavioral problems. Cyberbullying may be more damaging, as it not only co-occurs with other types of bullying but also is more difficult for victims to avoid. Cyberbullying can occur at any time of the day or any day of the week, and the victim need not be present. Victims of cyberbullying are also less likely to report their abuse or to seek help than victims of traditional bullying.
Self-esteem varies
with ethnic, contextual, and cultural factors
children spend more time
with siblings than with parents - Through interactions with siblings, children learn relationship skills such as conflict resolution.
Children who feel that a sibling receives more affection, approval, or resources from parents may feel
resentful, which may harm the sibling relationship.
Self esteem is influenced by...
self-evaluations and the importance children assign to the particular ability that's evaluated
victims of sexual abuse are also likely to show
sexual problems such as risky and unprotected sexual activity, avoidance of sex, and sexual anxiety and guilt ).
Although lacking close friends is not associated with maladjustment,
social acceptance by the peer group influences children's adjustment
Gender schema
A mental structure that organizes gender-related information
Gender identity
A person's awareness of being a male or female
Which statement is true regarding sexual abuse in childhood?
Child abuse is often not reported.
Self-concept
Children learn more about themselves from interactions. Older children understand traits vary with situations or contexts.
Friendships serve important developmental purposes throughout the lifespan.
Friends provide each other with tangible and emotional support. They are also a source of social comparison, permitting children to judge their competence relative to peers.
Authoritarian
Low warmth High, emphasizing control and punishment without discussion or explanation control
Indifferent
Low warmth Low control
repeat exposure
Repeatedly expose children to the material in school and at home via homework and discussions with parents.
Early Childhood
Self-concept based on categorical self Focus on present - Focus on characteristics that mark the individual as different from others and remain the same over time
Paige explains that it is very important for her and her ex-husband to minimize conflict around the boys. What is her motivation for doing so?
She was affected by her own divorced parents' conflict and wants to avoid that for her own boys.
treating school refusal
Support from parents and teachers is essential requires teaching the child to cope with challenging situations and emotions - providing training in social skills, emotional regulation, and problem solving. - children must return to, and remain in, school and use their new strategies and supports to manage and overcome their discomfort and fear.
Gender role
The behaviors and attitudes deemed appropriate for a given gender
Gender typing
The process of acquiring gender roles
Stopping bullying requires
awareness and change within the school.
Children who grow up in high SES families
how a greater mastery orientation and higher levels of achievement motivation, as well as better academic performance and greater involvement in organized activities after school
Some aggressive-rejected children become
provocative victims or bully-victims.
internal attribution
success tend to be more common in Westerners
, the link between parental divorce and children's adjustment lessens,
suggesting that parenting strategies and relationships are more important influences on children's adjustment than divorce
Boys who bully
tend to be above average in size, use physical aggression, and target both boys and girls.
Peer acceptance
the degree to which a child is viewed as a worthy social partner by his or her peers - vital sources of self-validation, self-esteem, and confidence
Most sexual assaults occur in
the home of the victim or the perpetrator, not in dark alleys or during abduction by a stranger .
Bullying can be motivated by
the pursuit of high status and a powerful dominant position in the peer group.
younger children describe
themselves in all-or-none terms
industry versus inferiority
4th of Erikson's eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills (math, reading/writing, and using computers), developing a sense of themselves as competent( success at tasks- curiosity, motivation, self-concept, and self-esteem) rather than inadequate.
When children are close to highly involved extended family members,
they develop family bonds and a sense of family honor that guides them and encourages them to succeed; this tends to hold true of all children, regardless of family structure
Bullies report choosing their victims because
they do not like them, often because the victims are perceived as different, as more quiet and cautious than other children
meaning and implications of bullying may vary with context - relational bullying may be more emotionally damaging to children reared in collectivist cultures that highly value relationships.
Accordingly, one comparison of Japanese and U.S. fourth graders showed more depression in Japanese victims
educate children
Educate children in a developmentally appropriate way about their bodies and their rights to not be touched. Provide children with the vocabulary to describe their bodies. Help children learn how to recognize inappropriate touches and learn what to do if touched.
Even children from Western cultures show a range of outcomes in response to adversity.
For example, Jane worries about her and her family's safety. Jane sometimes feels paralyzed by her fear and finds it hard to concentrate in class. She performs poorly in reading and math. Margarita also worries about her family and her own safety, but she can put her worries aside to focus on the teacher's lesson and earns As on many of her assignments. Margarita displays resilience, the ability to respond or perform positively in the face of adversity, to achieve despite the presence of disadvantages, or to significantly exceed expectations given poor home, school, and community circumstances
is a protective factor that promotes adjustment and can reduce the negative outcomes associated with adversity
For example, Margarita often attends an after-school program, where she learned to play basketball and use a computer. She has a close relationship with her mother and uncle, who visits each week to accompany them to church. Each of these factors—school and community connections, warm relationships with adults, routines, and church attendance
for school aged children
Friendship and peer acceptance become important influences on adjustment.
Which of the following occurs in middle childhood with sibling rivalry?
It increases as children become more competitive.
Which of the following is a characteristic of school refusal?
It is often characterized by a fear of failure.
cognitive
The emergence of gender identity leads children to classify the world around them according to gender labels, and they begin to show more interest in gender-appropriate toys. Children show an increase in stereotype knowledge, evaluate their own gender more positively, and demonstrate rigidity of gender-related beliefs. Gender constancy furthers gender typing as children attend more to norms of their sex. According to gender schema theory, once children can label their sex, their gender schema forms and becomes an organizing principle. Children notice differences between males and females in preferred clothes, toys, and activities, as well as how their culture classifies males and females as different and encompassing different roles. Children then use their gender schemas as guides for their behavior and attitudes, and gender typing occurs.
When are children more likely to report sexual abuse?
When they take part in school education programs.
Paige mentions that she and her ex-husband have found a good balance with co-parenting since the divorce. To further help their boys adjust, Paige and her ex-husband
celebrate holidays together
Aggressive-rejected children like Monica are
confrontational, hostile toward other children, impulsive, and hyperactive. They enter peer groups in destructive ways that disrupt the group's interaction or activity and direct attention to themselves. Aggressive-rejected children tend to have difficulty taking the perspective of others, and they tend to react aggressively to slights by peers, quickly assuming hostile intentions. Children whose parents show little warmth and use coercive discipline and threats are likely to threaten other children, have poor social skills, show aggressive behavior, and are more likely to be rejected by other children.
Sexual abuse refers to
inappropriate touching, comments, or sexual activity, coerced or persuaded with a child.
These latter methods
known as relational aggression, include ridiculing, embarrassing, and spreading rumors. - this bullying becomes more prevalent in middle childhood and increases throughout adolescence
Over one quarter of U.S. children under age 18
live with a single parent, most commonly with their mother
Preschoolers self-concept
not "realistic" like school-aged children more optimistic overestimates abilities
with age, children differentiate among best friends, good friends, and casual friends, depending
on how much time they spend together and how much they share with one another
Parents in many Asian countries
tend to hold a growth mindset and to view the application of effort as a moral responsibility. - tend to focus more on children's failure in order to encourage them to make corrections.
the chronic trauma of sexual abuse is
thought to alter neuron functioning in brain areas responsible for emotion regulation in adulthood, a physiological risk for mental health problems, difficulties managing stress, and an increased prevalence of disease.
Single fathers are more likely than mothers
to live with a partner and tend to have higher household incomes, both of which are associated with positive child outcomes.
North American parents tend
to pay attention to children's success and its relevance for self-esteem. U.S. mothers offered more praise after the child succeeded, but the Chinese mothers tended to point out poor performance and offer task-oriented statements to make the child try harder (e.g., "You only got 7 of 10"). After the mothers left the room, the children continued to play, and the Chinese children showed greater improvements in performance than the U.S. children
Compared to children who do not have friends of other races, children in cross-race friendships tend
to show a lower tolerance for excluding others and are less prone to peer victimization also they feel socially and emotionally safer and less vulnerable at school
Divorce is often preceded by damaging conflict.
true
African American children are disproportionally likely to live in a single-parent home
49% of African American children live with their mother alone, compared with 26% of Hispanic, 15% of non-Hispanic White, and 11% of Asian American children.
middle childhood
6-11 years - during this time, children have conceptions of themselves and their abilities
Can a child be happy without friends or without a best friend?
An estimated 15% to 20% of children are chronically friendless or consistently without a mutual best friend
What contributes to self concept
Brain development - unlike adults, children use many areas of the brain when processing info suggesting processing becomes more efficient and self-concept becomes more complex and differentiated.
Aggressive-rejected children
Characteristics: confrontational, hostile toward other children Impulsive and hyperactive Difficulty with emotional regulation Difficulty taking others' perspectives Assume that their peers are out to get them Poor social skills Outcomes: Misinterpret other children's behaviors and motives Similar outcomes for both types of rejected children Negative characteristics are strengthened. Few opportunities to learn and practice social skills, conflict resolution, and emotional regulation
Not all victims of bullying are passive and withdrawn
Older children who experience frequent victimization may respond with more intense feelings of anger and greater desires to retaliate, making them more likely to show reactive aggression, an aggressive response to an insult, confrontation, or frustration.
Middle Childhood
Self-concept based on understanding of stable individual differences in personality traits and abilities
nearly three quarters of families reported physical violence between siblings, and over 40% of children had been kicked, bitten, or punched by a sibling within the past year.
Some fighting and violence are common among siblings.Sibling conflict is associated with poor adjustment, peer aggression, and antisocial behaviors
Gender stability
The understanding that gender generally does not change over time; however, superficial changes in appearance might bring a change in gender
Gender constancy
The understanding that gender remains the same throughout life, despite superficial changes in appearance or attitude
Which statement is true regarding LGBT parents?
Their children exhibit normal emotional development.
Bullying
also known as peer victimization - refers to an ongoing interaction in which a child repeatedly attempts to inflict physical, verbal, or social harm on another child by, for example, hitting, kicking, name-calling, teasing, shunning, or humiliating the other child. Bullying is a problem for school-age children in many countries.
in African families
an adult male, such as an uncle or grandfather, takes on a fathering role, helping a child build competence and develop a relationship with a caring adult.
Bully-victims share characteristics of both bullies and victims but function more poorly than either.
bully-victims tend to show high levels of anxiety and depression, as well as low rates of social acceptance and self-esteem common to victims, but they also show more aggression, impulsivity, and poor self-control than do other victims. - Children who are bully-victims have difficulties managing emotions that may increase their risk for reactive aggression and acting out behaviors that invite aggressive exchanges with others. These characteristics lead children who are both bullies and victims to have problems in peer relationships. Bully-victims often are among the most disliked members of a classroom
popular children
characteristics: Helpful, trustworthy, assertive Cognitively skilled and achievement oriented Socially skilled, able to self-disclose and provide emotional support Good social problem-solving skills and conflict resolution skills Prosocial orientation Assume others have good intentions A minority are also antisocial and aggressive. They interact with others in a hostile way, using physical or relational aggression, and are likely to bully other children. outcomes: Positive characteristics are strengthened though experience and peer approval. Positive peer evaluations are sources of self-validation, self-esteem, confidence, and attention from peers, and they influence adjustment. Without intervention, the minority of popular adolescents who are aggressive are likely to continue patterns of physical or relational aggression in response to peer approval and acceptance.
physical bullying is most common in
childhood, and verbal/relational forms of bullying rise in childhood and remain common in adolescence.
mindset
children vary - the degree to which they believe that their abilities and characteristics are modifiable
Positive social competencies and prosocial behaviors are cyclical;
children who excel at social interaction continue to do so, their peers tend to reciprocate, and positive effects on peer relationships increase.
Relationally aggressive children, including bullies, are
frequently perceived by peers as cool, powerful, and popular; bullying can be helpful in maintaining prestige. Indirect forms of bullying, such as relational bullying, require social skills, which contribute to the relational bully's high social status among peers. In support of this, many bullies report making friends easily and receive similar levels of support from their classmates as other children
School refusal is more common
from 5 to 6 years of age and 10 to 11 years of age, during transitions to elementary school, from elementary to middle or junior high school, and from childhood to adolescence. - In some cases, school refusal is a response to media coverage of school shootings and other cases of extreme, but rare, school violence - during family transitions such as separations and divorce or may accompany family stressors such as mental health problems in parents. - because they often fear a particular aspect of school, such as attending gym class, and the fears are often realistic, such as fear of a school bully, a harsh teacher, or intense pressures to achieve from parents or teachers
Lifelong physical health issues associated with sexual victimization in childhood include
gastrointestinal distress, reproductive problems, generalized pain, and overall poor health .
Reported cases of child sexual abuse are more common in
homes characterized by poverty, food and housing insecurity, marital instability, and drug and alcohol abuse - Children who are raised in homes in which adults come and go—repeated marriages, separations, and revolving romantic partners—high risk - also occurs in intact families and at all socioeconomic levels. - more likely to be discovered in children of disadvantaged families than in children at higher socioeconomic levels, because disadvantaged children are likelier to come into contact with social services, such as when parents seek welfare and other forms of financial assistance or when parental substance use is discovered.
Which of the following is something children of single parents tend to face?
income problems
Bullies are more likely to experience
inconsistent, hostile, and rejecting parenting. Parents of bullies are more likely to provide poor supervision, prefer coercive control and physical discipline, and tend to be permissive toward aggressive behavior, even teaching their children to strike back at perceived provocation
views about abilities and explanations for success and failures are influenced by
interaction with people around us - socioeconomic status and culture
Sibling rivalry tends to rise in
middle childhood as children increasingly engage in social comparison.
Single-parent-headed households often ends. - increase hours they work
move to more affordable housing, causing additional changes in children's school, community, and circle of friends, reducing children's access to social support and opportunities to play with friends
Obergefell v. Hodges
same-sex marriage nationwide, every state permits joint adoption by married couples, regardless of sexual orientation.
Some children's anxiety manifests as
school refusal, the refusal to attend school or to stay in school.
Peer rejection further hinders
social development by depriving children of opportunities to learn and practice social skills such as interacting with other children, resolving conflict, and regulating emotions. Peer rejection is associated with short- and long-term problems, such as loneliness, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, low academic achievement, and, in adolescence, delinquency and school dropout. Chronic peer rejection is associated with high levels of activity in regions of the brain linked with detecting and experiencing the emotional distress caused by social exclusion. Moreover, the experience of chronic rejection in childhood is associated with heightened neural responses to exclusion in adolescence.
Both boys and girls show similar emotional responses to sexual abuse, including
symptoms of anxiety and depression and behavioral responses such as social withdrawal, aggression, sleep disturbances, poor academic achievement, and risky behaviors . child abuse - is associated with mental and behavioral health problems in adolescence and adulthood, including depression, anxiety, antisocial behavior, substance dependence, and suicide attempts.
the level of social support afforded single mothers influences
their abilities to provide emotional support for their children and implement effective parenting strategies.
Parents influence children
through the home context they provide.
how do parents influence children's achievement?
through their own beliefs and attitudes about ability.
in single parent families children tend
to show more physical and mental health problems, poorer academic achievement, less social competence, and more behavior problems than do children in intact two-parent families
LGBT parents are more likely to adopt
children than are heterosexual parents (10% and 3%, respectively).
adult bully
Bullying risk factors: Hostile and rejecting parenting Use of physical punishment Models aggressive behavior Permissive, inconsistent response to aggressive bullying behavior Bullying intervention: Teach authoritative parenting skills. Parent with sensitivity and consistency. Model nonaggressive behavior, interpersonal interactions, and conflict management strategies. Provide positive feedback to children for appropriate social behaviors. Use alternatives to physical punishment.
engage parents
Educate parents and assist them in discussing sexual abuse prevention with their children. Encourage them to support school efforts by discussing school activities.
Cyberbullying is
a type of relational bullying carried out by electronic means by text or electronic communication and social media. Cyberbullying tends to accompany other types of bullying rather than occur independently
Parents in low SES families that often work jobs that involve long hours, rotating and nonstandard shifts, and high physical demands
lack the energy and time to devote to children, and they may be unaware of opportunities or unable to take advantage of them
About one third of children raised in single-mother homes
live in poverty, compared with 16% of children in single-father homes and less than 6% of children in homes of married couples
Eric shares information about how his children have adjusted to their new blended family. Research on the adaptation process indicates that
school-age children and adolescents tend to display more difficulties in adjusting to remarriage than do younger children
Children raised by parents with a fixed view of abilities
tend to view their own ability as fixed and unchangeable and more likely to show a learned helplessness orientation - their parents tend to provide few opportunities for children to improve & ignore positive changes that they show as well as few opportunities to problem-solve or intervening when a child tries a challenging task may inhibit children's desire to succeed and may foster helplessness
Achievement motivation
the willingness to persist at challenging tasks and meet high standards of accomplishment - sense of industry and sense of self influences Achievement motivation - how children explain their own successes and failures influences their achievement which is measured by internal attributions(like studying) or external attributions(like luck)
Since 1960, divorce rates havef
tripled in many industrialized nations.
About one third of cohabiting couples break up about two thirds of first marriages are intact
within 3 years after 10 years
learned helplessness orientation
- children who respond to success and failure in maladaptive ways characterized by a fixed mindset and attribution of poor performance to internal factors - overwhelmed by challenges, are overly self-critical, feel incompetent, and avoid challenging tasks - can perpetuate poor performance - can confirm their negative views of their ability and sense of helplessness
growth mindset
- viewing their skills and characteristics as malleable or changeable
child bully
Bullying risk factors: Above average in size More physically and verbally assertive Impulsive Domineering, hostile toward peers Little anxiety or insecurity in peer contexts Makes friends easily Hyperactive behavior Academic difficulties Poor emotional control Bullying intervention: Teach alternatives to violence. Help children develop empathy. Teach emotional management and coping skills to reduce impulsive behavior.
school
Bullying risk factors: Groups students by physical characteristics such as height Policies that discourage reporting bullying incidents Teachers and administrators who ignore bullying Environment of negative feedback and negative attention bullying intervention: Stress that victims are not to blame. Teach social skills and conflict management. Promote a positive school climate that encourages students to feel good about themselves. Encourage fair discipline that is not punitive. Train teachers to identify and respond to potentially damaging victimization. Teachers use positive feedback and modeling to address appropriate social interactions. School personnel never ignore bullying behaviors. Encourage classmates to support one another and, rather than simply watch bullying events occur, tell a teacher, and refuse to watch or encourage the bully. Review and modify school practices with an eye toward identifying how school procedures may contribute to bullying.
adult victim
Bullying risk factors: Intrusive, overprotective, and/or critical parenting Teach authoritative parenting skills. Bullying intervention: Encourage parents to aid children in being independent and developing coping skills.
child victim
Bullying risk factors: passivity Physically weak Younger than peers Anxious, insecure, low self-esteem, dependent Quiet, cautious, withdrawn Little prosocial behavior Poor emotional control Loneliness Unhappiness at school Few good friends than peers Bullying intervention: Teach assertiveness skills. Teach children alternative responses to bullying. Teach anxiety and emotional management as well as social and coping skills.
who scores high on academic achievement but lower in self-esteem compared to North American children(whose culture has an emphasis on individuality)? Why?
Chinese and Japanese children (Asian cultures) - emphasize collectivism, social harmony, and modesty they don't use social comparison to enhance their self-esteem instead they praise others and minimize attention to themselves to maintain relationships
Teachers need to be aware of bullying and willing to intervene. - In addition, bystanders—children who watch episodes of bullying but do not act—reinforce bullies' behaviors and increase bullying.
Class norms can influence whether bystanders intervene. So can advice from parents. Classmates can be encouraged to support one another when bullying events occur: Rather than being bystanders or egging the bully on, they can tell a teacher, refuse to watch, and even, if safe, encourage bullies to stop.
Contextual
Contextual explanations rely on social learning and the influence of the sociocultural context in which children are raised. Males and females have different social experiences from birth. Gender typing occurs through socialization, through a child's interpretation of the world around him or her, and modeling and reinforcement from parents, peers, and teachers.
biological
Describes gender role development in evolutionary and biological terms. Males adapted to become more aggressive and competitive and females more nurturing as it ensured that their genes were passed to the next generation. Gender differences may also be explained by subtle differences in brain structure as well as differences in hormones.
friendships are rooted in similarity. Children tend to choose friends who share interests, play preferences, and personality characteristics & similarities in cognitive ability and intelligence & tend to share demographics, such as gender, race, and ethnicity
For example, in one study of 6- to 12-year-old U.S. children of Cambodian, Dominican, and Portuguese heritage, children became more proud of their heritage as they grew older and in turn showed a greater preference to form friendships within their ethnic group
Rates of bullying may vary with the sociocultural context.
One study of Puerto Rican children living in the South Bronx, New York, and San Juan, Puerto Rico, showed that children were more likely to bully others when they were part of a minority group on the mainland than when they were living in their home culture in Puerto Rico. - Mainland children who were more acculturated, or acclimated to U.S. culture, engaged in more bullying than did their less acculturated peers. - The longer the children lived on the mainland, the greater the demands of navigating cross-cultural worlds. - Bullying may be a response to the distress of navigating cross-cultural worlds or a response to perceived discrimination.
Helping victims of bullying is not enough, though—perpetrators of bullying also need help.
Parents and teachers should help bullies learn to identify, understand, and manage their and other people's emotions, as well as direct anger in safe and appropriate ways.
risk factors
Risk factors are circumstances that increase the likelihood of negative outcomes and, in extreme cases, can impede development.
individual competencies : Coping skills Easy temperament Emotional regulation abilities Good cognitive abilities Intelligence Positive outlook Positive self-concept Religiosity Self-efficacy (feeling of control over one's destiny) Talents valued by others Family Competencies and Characteristics: Close relationships with parents and caregivers Organized home Parental involvement in children's education Positive family climate Postsecondary education of parents Provision of support Religiosity and engagement with the church Socioeconomic advantage Warm but assertive parenting
School and community characteristics : (Access to local churches After-school programs Availability of emergency services) Mentoring programs and opportunities to form relationships with adults Health care availability Instruction in conflict management Opportunity to develop and practice leadership skills Peer programs, such as big brother/big sister programs Programs to assist developing self-management skills Public safety Support networks outside of the family, such as supportive adults and peers Ties to prosocial organizations Well-funded schools with highly qualified teachers Youth programs
Signs of Child Abuse and Neglect The Child Exhibits extremes in behavior, such as overly compliant or demanding behavior, extreme passivity, withdrawal, or aggression. Has not received help for physical or medical problems (e.g., dental care, eyeglasses, immunizations) brought to the parents' attention. Has difficulty concentrating or learning problems that appear to be without cause. Is very watchful, as if waiting for something bad to happen. Frequently lacks adult supervision. Has unexplained burns, bruises, broken bones, or black eyes. Is absent from school often, especially with fading bruises upon return. Is reluctant to be around a particular person or shrinks at the approach of a parent or adult. Reports injury by a parent or another adult caregiver. Lacks sufficient clothing for the weather. Is delayed in physical or emotional development. States that there is no one at home to provide care.
The Parent Shows indifference and little concern for the child. Denies problems at home. Blames problems on the child. Refers to the child as bad or worthless or berates the child. Has demands that are too high for the child to achieve. Offers conflicting, unconvincing, or no explanation for the child's injury. Uses harsh physical discipline with the child or suggests that caregivers use harsh physical discipline if the child misbehaves. Is abusing alcohol or other drugs.
Although children respond in various ways to bullying,
avoidance behaviors are common. Victims of bullying may respond to victimization in ways that reinforce bullies by becoming defensive, crying, and giving into bullies' demands.
Children who experience peer rejection tend to
be disliked and shunned by their peers. Children who have poor communication, language, emotional control, and social information processing skills are at risk for peer rejection.
why is it often difficult for children who are sexually abused to cope and heal
because sexual abuse often is not a one-time event; some children experience sexual abuse that persists for years
fixed mindset
believing their characteristics are enduring and unchangeable
Which type of family structure includes stepparents and stepsiblings?
blended family
older children include
both positive and negative traits
In schools that are ethnically, racially, and socioeconomically diverse
children are more likely to report having at least one close friend of another race - School-age girls may be more likely to have ethnically diverse social networks and cross-race friendships than boys
Fear is a common problem of childhood.
children may worry about parents' health, wars, natural disasters, illnesses such as AIDS, and terrorist attacks - Children who express many worries and anxieties tend to have lower self-confidence and perceived control than other children
Protective factors may arise Resilient children tend to have personal characteristics that protect them from adversity and help them learn from experience, such as an easy temperament, a sense of competence, self-control, good information processing and problem-solving skills, friendliness, and empathy A fundamental characteristic is that they are successful in regulating their emotions and behavior Resilient individuals also have a proactive orientation, take initiative, believe in their own effectiveness, and have a positive sense of self Avenues for fostering resilience include promoting children's strengths and bolstering children's executive function skills, self-appraisals, and sense of efficacy Children who are resilient tend to have strong and supportive relationships with at least one parent, caregiver, or adult who provides warm guidance and firm support Effective supports for children at risk target parents' mental health and self-care skills, aid parents in establishing routines, promote parenting skills, and help parents understand the impact of trauma on children Resilient children illustrate an important finding: Exposure to adversity in childhood does not necessarily lead to maladjustment; many children thrive despite challenging experiences.
from within the child, from the family or extended family, and from the community
According to Eric, the benefits of growing up with step siblings for his biological children and stepchildren include
getting used to different personalities being able to learn from one another
Warm and supportive parenting (Raftery, Grolnick, & Flamm, 2012). In contrast, excessive control and harsh criticism can damage children's motivation.
helps children to recognize their worth and appreciate their own competence.
In middle childhood, friendship transforms
into a reciprocal relationship in which children are responsive to each other's needs and trust each other. Shared values and rules become important components to friendship by 9 to 10 years of age
Bullying is not simply a child-to-child problem, and
it requires more than a child-centered solution.
Victims of bullying are
likely to be inhibited, frail in appearance, and younger than their peers. They often experience intrusive parenting, overprotectiveness, and criticism from parents, which increases their vulnerability to bullying. Perhaps not surprisingly, children who are bullied often report feeling lonely and less happy at school and having fewer good friends than their classmates - characteristics, including nonassertive styles of interacting with peers, shyness, passivity, and social withdrawal, as well as anxiety, depression, and poor emotional control, are present before the child becomes a target of peer victimization and are amplified by victimization
About 15% of U.S. children
live in a blended family: a family composed of a biological parent and a nonrelated adult, most commonly a mother and stepfather - sometimes referred to as stepfamilies or reconstituted families,
What increases the likelihood of abuse discovery?
lower SES on social services
Some research suggests that young elementary schoolchildren without friends score
lower on measures of theory of mind, suggesting that they are not cognitively prepared to take another person's perspective, a skill critical to making friends
Perpetrators of sexual abuse are most often
males whom the child knows, trusts, and has frequent contact with, such as parents, stepparents, and live-in boyfriends; stepfathers are likelier than fathers to be perpetrators
child sexual abuse
once "rare" -- now understood as a widespread problem around the world. - one quarter to one-third of U.S. children under the age of 17 have experienced sexual abuse. - many cases unreported, older children more likely to disclose sexual abuse (young children abuse is discovered accidentally thru eye witness detection or response to questions) boys are much less likely to report abuse cus of victimization and gender stereotypes - girls are more victimized - most often reported in middle childhood - half cases occur between 4 & 12
Nearly one third of school-age children in the United States refuse school at some point in their education, but
only about 2% of children refuse school regularly
Other rejected children are socially withdrawn,
passive, timid, anxious, and socially awkward. Withdrawn-rejected children tend to isolate themselves from peers, rarely initiate contact with peers, and speak less frequently than their peers They tend to spend most of their time playing alone and on the periphery of the social scene, often because of shyness or social anxiety. When socially withdrawn children experience peer rejection, they tend to become more withdrawn and even more disliked by their peers. Despite this, socially withdrawn children are just as likely to have a best friend as other children.
An estimated 40% of children will
pend some time in a cohabiting-parent family before they reach age 12.
low self-esteem influences are
perceived disapproval by peers and dependence on approval from others - show an emphasis of their weaknesses, downplay of strengths, and evaluating their abilities accuarely
Instead, some studies have suggested that children raised by gay and lesbian parents may
score higher in some aspects of social and academic competence, as well as show fewer social and behavioral problems and lower levels of aggression, than other children
African American children - self-esteem
score lower on measures compared to white and hispanic children - experience contextual conditions such as poverty, unsafe neighborhoods, ongoing stressors, racism and discrimination.
Girls who bully
tend to be verbally assertive, target other girls, and use verbal or psychological methods of bullying that threaten relationships.
school-age children
tend to name only a handful of friends - Older children, especially girls, tend to have fewer, but closer, friends, and by age 10, most children report having a best friend
Students who believe that their teachers provide a positive learning environment
tend to work harder in class and show higher achievement than students who lack this belief
Addressing the problem of bullying requires
that children, teachers, and parents voice concerns about bullying; schools develop policies against bullying; teachers supervise and monitor children during lunch and recess times; and parents learn how to identify and change victims' and bullies' behaviors.
Successful interventions stress
that victimized children are not to blame for the abuse.
When students view their teachers as unsupportive
they are more likely to attribute their performance to external factors, such as luck or the teacher, and to withdraw from class participation. - As students' achievement declines, they further doubt their abilities, creating a vicious cycle between helpless attributions and poor achievement.
Both aggressive-rejected and withdrawn-rejected children are similar in that
they misinterpret other children's behaviors and motives, have trouble understanding and regulating their emotions, are poor listeners, and are less socially competent than other children.
As school-age children become more independent,
they spend less time with their parents but remain close to their parents - Parents and school-age children tend to spend their time together engaging in task-oriented activities, such as doing homework, preparing meals, cleaning, and shopping. Interactions with parents help children practice, rehearse, and refine skills that are important for peer relationships.
Socioeconomic status (SES) influences children's motivation
through the availability of opportunities and resources and through parents' behavior.
Boys and girls who bully tend
to be impulsive and domineering, and they show little anxiety or insecurity in peer contexts.
Interventions focusing on victims seek
to change victims' negative perceptions of themselves by helping them to acquire the skills needed to maintain relationships with peers and teaching them to respond to bullying in ways that do not reinforce their attackers.
Children who are securely attached to parents tend
to develop positive emotion regulation skills that aid them in home, peer, and school contexts
bully-victims were more likely
to experience anxiety and depression in late adolescence and in early adulthood—and even into middle adulthood.
Children reared by parents who are single by choice tend
to experience few adjustment problems
