Chapter 10: Resistance Training: Programming and Progressions

Progression (two approaches)

Two principal approaches to strength training: Progressive repetitions - increasing the number of repetitions performed with a given resistance o The standard means for improvement with body-weight exercises o Exercise sets can be completed using the anaerobic energy system (less than 90 seconds) Progressive resistance - gradually increasing the exercise workload o Exercise sets are always completed within the limits of the anaerobic energy system • The double-progressive protocol may be used with any repetition range: Add repetitions Then add resistance in 5% increments The resistance is increased only when the end-range number of repetition can be completed with proper form

Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Training: Long-Term

Two principal long-term physiological adaptations to progressive resistance exercise: Increased muscular strength and increased muscle size (hypertrophy) • Muscular strength: Initially, strength gains are the result of neurological factors (motor learning). • Ongoing resistance exercise results in efficient activation of the motor units involved in the exercise movement: Motor units that produce the desired movement are facilitated. Motor units that produce the opposing movement are inhibited. • Resistance exercise causes muscle tissue microtrauma, depending on the intensity and volume of the training. • Following a challenging resistance-training session, muscle tissue remodeling results in growth of muscle fibers coupled with small increases in muscular strength

physical capacity

Physical capacity is the ability to perform work or exercise. • Resistance training results in stronger muscles that increase the physical capacity for force production: Progressive resistance exercise enables an individual to perform a single lift with a heavier weight load (muscular strength) or to perform more repetitions with a submaximal weight load (muscular endurance). Previously untrained adults may increase their muscle mass and increase their resting metabolic rate (RMR).

Training Tempo

Research has not identified a particular training tempo that is most effective for increasing muscular strength and size. • Movement speeds of 6 seconds per repetition is commonly recommended for machine (selectorized) training: Concentric muscle action - one to three seconds Eccentric muscle action - two to four seconds • The trainer should emphasize performing all exercises through a full range of motion (ROM)

benefits of resistance training

Strength training is the process of exercising with progressively heavier resistance to stimulate muscle development. • The outcomes and benefits of regular resistance exercise include: Increased muscle fiber size and contractile strength Increased tensile strength in tendons and ligaments Increased bone mineral density Improved power production and sports performance

Phase 1: Stability and Mobility

The primary goal is to facilitate the development of the stability- mobility relationship within the kinetic chain: Begin by promoting proximal stability within the lumbar spine Then move to proximal mobility of more distal segments of the body • The strategies aim to reestablish proper neuromuscular function and balance within the muscles acting at and across the joints. • Utilize a variety of flexibility methods - static stretching, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), and myofascial release • To improve a muscle's ability to maintain good joint position and function: Begin with isometric contractions of the targeted muscle Follow with dynamic movements that increase the muscular volume and load

vitamins and minerals

These vitamins and minerals are important for optimal athletic performance: Iron - necessary for the synthesis of hemoglobin and myoglobin, iron-protein complexes that deliver oxygen from the lungs to the working muscles; necessary for optimal oxygen delivery to working cells Zinc - immune function, protein synthesis, and blood formation Vitamin B12 - needed for normal metabolism of nerve tissue, protein, fat, and carbohydrate Riboflavin - essential for energy production; stored in muscles and used most in times of muscular fatigue Vitamin D - necessary for calcium absorption, bone growth, and mineralization Calcium - necessary for blood clotting, nerve transmission, muscle stimulation, maintaining bone structure and vitamin D metabolism

Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Training: Acute

To perform resistance exercise, several acute physiological responses must take place: Nerve impulses are transmitted from the central nervous system to activate the appropriate motor units and muscle fibers in the prime mover muscles. Muscle fibers contract to provide the necessary force. Muscle fibers use fuel sources such as creatine phosphate and glycogen for anaerobic energy production. Results in metabolic by-products such as hydrogen ions and lactate • Within the endocrine system: Cortisol, epinephrine, growth hormone, and testosterone increase during a resistance-training session

Training Frequency

Training frequency - inversely related to both training volume and training intensity: Less vigorous exercise sessions: Produce less muscle microtrauma Require less time for tissue remodeling Can be performed more frequently • More vigorous exercise sessions: Produce more muscle microtrauma Require more time for tissue remodeling Must be performed less frequently for optimum results

Training Principles

When muscles are systematically stressed in a progressive manner, they gradually increase in size and strength: If the training stress is slightly greater than normal, the muscles respond positively, leading to larger and stronger muscles. If the training program no longer produces gains in muscular strength or size, the exercise protocol should be changed in some way to again elicit the desired neuromuscular adaptations.

Microcycle

a training period of typically 2-4 weeks

Mesocycle

a training period of typically 3 months

Training Volume Based on Goal

see chart

Injury Risk and Disease Prevention

A comprehensive program of resistance exercise may be the most effective means of preventing musculoskeletal injuries and reducing the risk of degenerative diseases: Shock absorption and balance to help dissipate repetitive landing forces Reduced risk of overuse injuries that result from strong and weak opposing muscle groups Increased bone mineral density, which may reduce the risk of osteoporosis Improved body composition, which reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease Reduced pain of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis A decrease in depression in older men and women Improved functional ability in older adults Increased mitochondrial content and oxidative capacity of muscle tissue

General Training Frequency Guidelines

Beginner (not currently training or just beginning with minimal skill)=2-3 sessions per week Intermediate(basic skill)=3-4 sessions per week Advanced(advanced skill)=4-7 sessions per week

Training Variables

Designing effective programs requires consideration of several factors and programming variables: A needs assessment Appropriate exercise frequency consistent with the client's goals Training experience Current conditioning level Necessary recovery periods between sessions Appropriate exercises and exercise order consistent with program needs and goals, equipment availability, client experience, technique, and conditioning level The exercise volume and load - sets, repetitions, and intensity Appropriate rest intervals between sets based on the client's needs and goals

Resistance Training Myths and Mistakes

Fat deposits in certain areas (e.g., the abdomen or thighs) can be targeted with strength training via spot reduction. Women will build bulky muscles through weight training. Individuals should use light weights and high repetitions to improve muscle tone, and heavy weights and low repetitions to increase muscle mass. At some point, people get too old to lift weights. Children are too young to lift weights. Free weights are always better than machines. After a person stops resistance training, the muscle turns to fat. Strength training is bad for the exerciser's blood pressure

Phase 2: Movement Training

Movement training focuses on developing movement efficiency, essentially teaching clients to perform the five primary movements effectively in all three planes: Bend-and-lift movements Single-leg movements Pushing movements Pulling movements Rotational (spiral) movements • Most pushing, pulling, and squatting motions can be performed either unilaterally or bilaterally; lunges require combined acyclical unilateral movements of the legs. • Most everyday pushing, pulling, and squatting movements have a rotational component that requires either motion or stabilization to prevent motion in the transverse plane When the five primary movements can be performed with proper form, external resistance may be applied for progressive strength development. Assessments: Conduct movement-training phase assessments on a monthly basis until the client has mastered the squat, lunge, push, pull, and rotation movements. Include protocols (such as movement screens) to identify a client's ability to control mobility through specific ranges of motion (ROM). Compare baseline data from a battery of movement screens to data collected during the stability and mobility training phase. Implement core muscular-endurance assessments if they were not conducted during the prior phase For program design, use the acronym FIRST to designate the five key components of resistance-training program design: Frequency Intensity Repetitions Sets Type of exercise • Motor learning plays a major role in the desired physical development and movement patterns. • Consequently, exercise repetition should be emphasized over exercise intensity • Assessments: Conduct movement-training phase assessments on a monthly basis until the client has mastered the squat, lunge, push, pull, and rotation movements. Include protocols (such as movement screens) to identify a client's ability to control mobility through specific ranges of motion (ROM). Compare baseline data from a battery of movement screens to data collected during the stability and mobility training phase. Implement core muscular-endurance assessments if they were not conducted during the prior phase For program design, use the acronym FIRST to designate the five key components of resistance-training program design: Frequency Intensity Repetitions Sets Type of exercise • Motor learning plays a major role in the desired physical development and movement patterns. • Consequently, exercise repetition should be emphasized over exercise intensity Appropriate progression: The standard recommendation is a 5% resistance increase whenever the end range number of repetitions can be completed. Increase repetitions and sets Add more advanced movement-training exercises Add initial external loadings such as elastic resistance, medicine balls, or cables • Clients may progress to phase 3 when exercises can be performed correctly while maintaining: A neutral posture A stable center of gravity Controlled movement speed

Metabolic Function

Muscle disuse atrophy results in a decrease in RMR. • Strength training raises RMR and results in more calories burned on a daily basis: The microtrauma-repair and muscle-remodeling processes require increased energy for at least 72 hours following a challenging strength-training session. Strength training increases muscle mass, decreases fat mass, and raises RMR, effectively countering primary degenerative processes of sedentary aging. The calories used during the strength-training session and in the post-exercise muscle- remodeling period contribute to fat loss and provide associated health benefits

Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Training: Long Term

Muscular hypertrophy: Satellite cells - responsible for building larger and stronger muscle fibers • Strength-trained muscle fibers increase in cross-sectional area as a result of two tissue adaptations: An increase in the number of myofibrils; referred to as myofibrillar hypertrophy - results in greater muscle contraction force An increase in the muscle cell sarcoplasm that surrounds the myofibrils; known as sarcoplasmic hypertrophy - results in an increase the cross-sectional area • Transient hypertrophy: Term denoting the "muscle pump" experienced by many people immediately following resistance training

Factors that influence muscular strength and hypertrophy

1. HORMONE LEVELS - associated with tissue growth and development: Growth hormone levels - highest during youth and decrease with advancing age Testosterone concentrations - also decrease with age • Higher levels are advantageous for increasing muscular strength and size. • Lower levels of both lead to reduced muscle mass and strength in older adults. 2. SEX - gender influences muscle quantity, not muscle quality • Men typically have greater muscle mass and overall muscular strength than women: Larger body size Higher lean weight percentage More anabolic hormones (testosterone) 3. AGE - advancing age is associated with less muscle mass and lower strength levels, partly due to lower levels of anabolic hormones: An average strength loss of 10% per decade in adults • It appears that all ages initially respond to progressive resistance exercise and gain muscle at the same rate • The potential for total-body muscle mass diminishes during the older-adult years 4. MUSCLE FIBER TYPE - two categories of contractile proteins: Type I muscle fibers (slow-twitch) o Typically smaller with more aerobic capacity o Activated at lower force levels Type II muscle fibers (fast-twitch)-type IIa and type IIx o Typically larger with more anaerobic capacity o Activated at higher force levels • Endurance and resistance training can create small shifts in fiber composition from type IIx fibers to type IIa fibers. • Anaerobic training causes an adaptation where type IIa fibers change to function more like type IIx fibers 5. MUSCLE LENGTH-perhaps the most important factor for attaining large muscle size is muscle length relative to bone length: Some people have relatively short muscles with long tendon attachments. Some people have relatively long muscles with short tendon attachments. Individuals with relatively long muscles possess a greater potential for muscle development than those with relatively short muscles. 6. LIMB LENGTH - affects strength performance, but does not influence muscle hypertrophy: Shorter limbs provide leverage advantages over longer limbs Muscle force x Muscle force arm = Resistance force x Resistance force arm Longer limbs - longer resistance force arms require more muscle force to move a given resistance Shorter limbs - shorter resistance force arms require less muscle force to move a given resistance 7. LEVER SYSTEMS IN THE BODY The muscle force arm - the distance from the joint axis of rotation to the muscle- tendon-insertion point The resistance force arm - the distance from the joint axis of rotation to the resistance application point 8. TENDON INSERTION POINT- affects strength performance, but does not influence muscle hypertrophy: A longer muscle force arm provides a leverage advantage or moving a heavier resistance An individual with a tendon insertion point farther from the elbow joint axis can curl a heavier dumbbell than an individual with a tendon insertion point closer to the elbow joint

Undulating Periodization

A form of periodization that provides changes in the acute variables of workouts to achieve different goals on a daily or weekly basis.

needs assessment

A trainer must complete a detailed needs assessment to determine what the appropriate program will entail. • To complete the needs assessment, the trainer should consider the following: Evaluation of the activity or sport Movement analysis Physiological analysis Injury analysis Individual assessment Current conditioning level Training history and technique History of injury or fear of injury Tolerance for discomfort

Older Adult Strength Training

ACSM recommends older adults use a resistance that can be performed for between 10 and 15 repetitions. This provides a productive training range without putting excessive stress on joint structures. Additionally, older adults should: Avoid holding their breath and performing isometric contractions to prevent an unnecessary increase in blood pressure Exhale during concentric muscle actions and inhale during eccentric muscle actions Perform two resistance-exercise sessions per week to attain ample muscle-remodeling time between training days Begin training with a few basic resistance exercises, and progress to about a dozen exercises that address all of the major muscle groups Begin with a single set of each exercise, performed through full ranges with controlled movement speed Warm-up with a set of each exercise at 50 to 60% of the training weight loa Progress training volumes to 2-3 sets of each exercise as they become capable and have a desire to do so Begin with stable/supported exercises before progressing to less stable/unsupported exercises, especially with frail, weak clients or those with balance issues: o As strength increases, the ability to perform more challenging training exercises should improve accordingly Complete a health questionnaire to reveal any exercise cautions or contraindications Monitor resting heart rate and blood pressure periodically Monitor their heart rate by ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) Be asked to give feedback on how they are feeling, especially if they are experiencing any aches, pains, or physical problems

B-alanine and sodium bicarbonate

Acid accumulation in muscle cells during a strenuous exercise bout may be responsible for the development of muscle fatigue. • β-alanine and sodium bicarbonate both: Act as pH buffers in muscle tissue May contribute to a less acidic environment may delay fatigue May enhance muscle force and power output • It appears that the supplements have few harmful side effects, though more research is needed to better understand their risks and benefits

anabolic-androgenic steroids

Anabolic steroids quickly and dangerously build muscle mass and strength and have serious side effects: In men - high blood pressure, rage, gynecomastia, decreased testicle size In women - increased testosterone, facial hair growth, deepening of the voice • Androstenedione supplements: Claim to increase testosterone levels, promote muscle size and strength Repeated use poses significant health risks: decreased high- density lipoprotein (HDL) levels, increased cardiovascular disease, increased prostate and pancreatic cancer risk; baldness; and gynecomastia • Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) supplements: Claim to promote youthfulness, virility, and enhanced strength Research shows that it does not affect strength, lean body mass, or performance

Appropriate Program Progressions

BEGIN WITH > PROGRESS TO uniplanar movement machines > multiplanar supported machines > unsupported muscles isolation exercise > multipoint exercise bilateral, fixed-level machines > unilateral, free moving machines

Caffeine

Caffeine can ward off sleep, improve athletic performance, decrease pain and fatigue, boost memory, and enhance mood. • Research findings on caffeine: Enhances athletic performance Sustains duration, maximizes effort, and quickens speed in endurance events Perceived exertion decreases and high-intensity efforts seem less taxing • With exercise, caffeine does not cause negative effects like water- electrolyte imbalances, hyperthermia, or reduced exercise-heat tolerance. • Performance-enhancing benefits of caffeine are stronger in non- users (<50 mg/day) than regular users (>300 mg/day). • Chronic use contributes to high blood pressure, high blood sugar, decreased bone density in women, jittery nerves, and sleeplessness

Linear Periodization

Classic or traditional strength and power programming that begins with high-volume, low-intensity training and progresses toward low-volume, high-intensity training.

Exercise selection and order

Determining exercise selection and order is a complex process that requires: Consideration of the individual's experience and exercise technique Movement and physiological demands of the activity or sport Consideration of equipment and time availability • Group exercises based on body area, function, or relevance to the activity: Primary exercises - multiple muscles from one or more of the larger muscle areas that span two or more joints; generally performed in a linear fashion Assisted exercises - smaller muscle groups from more isolated areas that span one joint • Grouping specific muscles into a session: Should reflect the specific needs of the client and availability for training ACSM recommends targeting each major muscle group 2 or 3 days a week, allowing a minimum of 48 hours of recovery between sessions Trainers can select from a variety of methods to enhance muscle hypertrophy or improve muscular endurance, strength, and power: Performing primary exercises followed by assisted exercises within a targeted area Multijoint linear exercises, followed by single-joint rotary exercises Alternating upper- and lower-extremity exercises within or between training sessions Group pushing and pulling muscles within a session Alternating pushing and pulling movements or targeting joint agonists and antagonists within a session Performing supersets or compound sets, before an appropriate rest interval is taken

Phase 3: Load Training

In phase 3, the training emphasis progresses to muscle force production. • Training objectives may include: Increased muscular endurance Increased muscular strength Increased muscle hypertrophy Improved body composition, movement, function, and health • Periodically assess muscular strength and endurance to facilitate program design and to quantify training effectiveness. Program design for improving muscular endurance, fitness, and health • Traditional training for muscular endurance: Total-body workout - exercises for the larger muscle groups of the legs, the trunk, then the upper body and arms Three sets of 12 to 16 repetitions; with 1-2 minute rest between successive sets 10 exercises; requires approximately 90 minutes for completion • Circuit strength training - a more time- efficient means for improving muscular endurance and cardiovascular endurance • Appropriate progression for muscular endurance Progression to heavier weight loads should be done in 5% increments whenever the end-range repetitions can be completed in all of the sets for a given exercise. This is a higher-repetition-range application of the double- progressive training protocol. With circuit strength training, increase the number of circuits. When the desired number of circuits can be completed, increase the weight loads by approximately 5% • Program design for improving muscular strength • Preferred protocols for strength development place more emphasis on training intensity: Total-body strength training: Involves fewer weekly exercise sessions with longer workout durations • Split-routine exercise programs: One major muscle group per day Two weekly workouts per major muscle group • Supersets: Training a different muscle group while the first muscle group is recovering Saves time Maintains a higher metabolic response because muscular activity is occurring throughout the entire workout Appropriate progression for muscular strength • The double progressive training protocol is recommended,as trainers should factor both repetitions and resistance into the training progression: First - establish the client's repetition range, such as 4-8 repetitions per set Second - continue training with the same exercise resistance until the terminal number of repetitions (8 repetitions) can be completed with proper technique Then - raise the resistance by approximately 5%, which will reduce the number of repetitions the client can perform Continue with this resistance until 8 repetitions can again be completed; then increase the weight load by another Program design for muscle hypertrophy (bodybuilding) Muscle hypertrophy favors relatively high training volumes and relatively brief rests between sets o Lower weight loads and higher repetitions than muscular-strength training o Higher weight loads and lower repetitions than muscular-endurance training Mode - free weights, machines, cable exercises, and body-weight exercises to fully fatigue the targeted muscle Frequency - training each major muscle group twice a week provides for 72 hours of recovery between similar training sessions Appropriate progression for muscle hypertrophy An indication for increasing the training resistance is an average of 10-12 repetitions for all of the exercises completed in the body-part workout: • Fewer repetitions will be completed in the latter exercises, especially for advanced methods for fatiguing the targeted muscle. Periodic measurements of body composition and body- part circumferences provides practical assessment information: • Increases in muscle mass and circumference measurements indicate that the exercise progression is effective. • A lack of improvement indicates that a change is necessary. • A progress plateau (or regression) is the result of overtraining rather than under training

Muscular Strength/Power/Endurance Relationships

One-repetition maximum (1-RM) - the highest resistance that can be moved through the full movement range at a controlled movement speed • Muscular endurance - typically assessed by the number of repetitions that can be performed with a given submaximal resistance • Muscular power - the product of muscular strength and movement speed • An increase in muscular strength is accompanied by an increase in muscular power: Training with light resistance enables fast movement speed, but results in a low power output. Training with heavy resistance enables high strength, but requires slow movement speed, and therefore results in a low power output. Training with medium resistance and moderate-to-fast movement speeds produces the highest power output and is the most effective means for increasing muscular power

Resistance Training Periodization Models

Periodization involves a planned progression of resistance exercise that intentionally varies the training stimuli, especially with respect to intensity and volume. • Periodized training is divided into time segments: Macrocycle - a training period of 6-12 months Mesocycle - typically 3 months Microcycle - typically 2-4 weeks

Prerequisite Strength for Performance Training

Phase 4—the performance phase—focuses specifically on enhancing athletic skills for sports through the application of power exercises that emphasize the speed of force production. • Clients should: Have successfully completed both the movement- and load-training phases Demonstrate good postural stability, proper movement patterns, and relatively high levels of muscular strength • Personal trainers must: Understand that power training involves advanced exercise techniques that can place greater stress on the musculoskeletal system Be certain their clients have the joint integrity, movement abilities, and muscular strength to properly and safely perform the performance-training progressions

youth strength training

Preadolescents who perform regular resistance exercise experience several benefits: Significant strength gains compared to their non-training peers Enhanced skeletal development in children Enhanced psychosocial health, motor skills, and sports performance Increased bone mineral density

Intensity and Adherence

Progressing intensity too quickly could lead to excessive delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) or injury, providing reasons for a new client to quit the exercise program. • When developing a program for a client new to exercise, consider the following: Begin with a low level of intensity o Allow the client to physically and psychologically adapt to the training stress. Gradually progressing the intensity o Help the client experience results while developing long-term adherence to exercise.

Creatine

Research suggests creatine is effective in building muscle mass, especially when combined with intensive strength training. • Creatine is: A derivative of three amino acids and a source of rapid energy A natural substance produced by the body and stored in the muscles in small amounts Not included on any doping lists • With creatine loading or supplementation - athletes increase their muscle stores; can then be used to provide an extra boost for a high-intensity weight-lifting session • People with potential risk of renal dysfunction, or with diabetes, hypertension, or decreased kidney function, should not use creatine unless its use is advised or cleared by a physician

Rest Intervals

Rest intervals - the recovery periods between successive exercises or between successive sets of the same exercise • The length of the rest interval is dependent on: The training goal The client's conditioning status The load and amount of work performed • The heavier the load, the longer the rest interval needed to replenish the muscle's energy pathways. For general muscular conditioning, 1-minute rest intervals between successive exercise sets are sufficient. • If maximizing muscular strength, take several minutes of rest between sets of the same exercise. • If maximizing muscle size, take 30 to 90 seconds between successive exercise sets. • Shorter rest intervals increase cardiovascular and metabolic responses both during and after the exercise session. • For clients new to resistance training, rest intervals should be long enough to maintain their comfort levels, but not so long that their heart rate and body temperature return to normal resting levels.

Strength Training Equipment Options

Selectorized machines - provide body support and predetermined movement patterns; safe, time-efficient, and highly effective • Cables - constant resistance force; freedom of movement and require stabilizer muscles to maintain proper posture • Free weights - both barbells and dumbbells; freedom of movement; highly versatile Kettlebells - the center of mass extends beyond the hand; develops strength and power through integrated, whole-body movements Medicine balls - available in 1-pound increments and extremely versatile; can be moved very fast and released (e.g., tossed or thrown) with a low risk of injury • Elastic resistance - inexpensive; requires little space; provide greater resistance force as they are stretched; versatile • Body-weight training - progression is accomplished by more reps

Diminishing Returns

Sometimes referred to as a strength plateau • As clients approach their genetic potential for muscle size and strength, the rate of development decreases accordingly. • The introduction of a new exercise involves a new neuromuscular response and motor-unit activation pattern that facilitates a period of progressive strength gains.

Specificity

Specificity has many applications for achieving the desire strength-training objectives. • Exercise the appropriate muscles: Emphasize the specific movements and muscles used in a particular activity. Ensure that all of the major muscle groups are exercised to reduce the risk of muscle imbalance and overuse injuries. • Use appropriate resistance-repetition protocols: Train with heavier weight loads and fewer repetitions to emphasize muscular strength development, or Train with moderate weight loads and more repetitions to emphasize the development of muscular endurance

Physical Appearance and Body Composition

The human body is composed of two primary components: Fat weight Fat-free weight, or lean weight: o Muscle o Bone o Blood o Skin o Organs o Connective tissue • An increase in body fat percentage may have a negative impact on appearance, fitness, and health.

Overload

The process of gradually adding more exercise resistance than the muscles have previously encountered • To maximize strength development, muscles must be subjected to progressively heavier training loads: Increase the resistance in gradations of about 5%. Once a set number of repetitions can be completed, add about 5% more resistance to provide progressive overload and facilitate further strength development

Training Intensity

Training intensity varies inversely with training volume and can be defined as either: The percentage of maximum resistance used in an exercise The effort level achieved during an exercise set o Higher-intensity training sessions require lower exercise volumes. o Higher-volume exercise sessions require lower training intensities. • Most periodization models: Begin with higher-volume/lower-intensity workouts Progress to moderate-volume/moderate-intensity workouts Conclude with lower-volume/higher-intensity workouts • The more important factor for strength development appears to be the training effort.

Training Volume

Training volume - the cumulative work completed during each resistance-training session Training volume is calculated in several ways: Repetition-volume calculation: Volume = Sets x Repetitions (for either the muscle group or the session) • Load-volume calculation: Volume = Exercise weight load x Repetitions x Sets (then summing the total for each muscle group or the entire session) Although training volume is an excellent measure of how much work was performed, it may not be an accurate assessment of how hard a person truly worked Training volume provides a reasonably good indication of the energy used in a workout: A correlation exists between the total amount of weight lifted and the total number of calories burned • Powerlifters-typically lower-volume workouts: Fewer exercises, repetitions, and sets with heavier weight loads Focus on improving the muscle's ability to maximally recruit fibers to generate higher amounts of force • Competitive bodybuilders-higher-volume workouts: More exercises, repetitions, and sets with moderate weight loads Focus on increasing the amount of time the muscle spends under tension performing work to stimulate hypertrophy

Protein and Amino Acids Supplements

Whey - a high-quality protein containing all of the essential amino acids: 3 varieties of whey protein—powder, concentrate, and isolate—all provide high levels of the essential and branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), vitamins, and minerals Offers numerous health benefits - increased muscle hypertrophy, muscular strength, and bone growth • Casein - accounts for 70 to 80% of milk protein: Provides a sustained slow release of amino acids into the bloodstream Glutamine - a nonessential amino-acid supplement Is marketed for its potential to increase strength, speed recovery, decrease frequency of respiratory infections, and prevent overtraining Research has failed to find a performance-enhancing benefit for supplementation

Macrocycle

a training period of 6-12 months

NSCA Guidelines for Youth Strength Training

qualfied instruction and supervision safe environment warm up of dynamic exercise one to three sets of each resistance exercise the resistance that permits six to 15 reps per set variety of upper and lower body strength exercises resistance increases by 5-10% increments two or three non-consecutive training days per week post training cool down with less intense calisthenics and static stretching individual training logs to monitor progress