Chapter 11-15
Social exchange theory help us determine what?
(1) how satisfied a person is with a job (2) whether a person will stay in the position
Attitudes are two things- what are they?
(1) relatively stable and (2) formed about real or abstract concepts, events, or objects -attitudes tend to persist over time, although they can change -attitudes are formed about specific objects
How does organizational commitment affect the organization and people?
Not only good for company, but it also has positive consequences for persons who have this attitude -have more successful careers + happier in their lives in general
Human Race Machine
The Human Race Machine (HRM) is a computerized console composed of four different programs. The Human Race Machine program allows participants to see themselves with the facial characteristics of six different races: Asian, White, African, Middle Eastern, and Indian, mapped onto their own face.
sexual harassment categories
Sexual harassment- an unwanted sexual communication or act Five categories: gender harassment = the use of sexual or sexist remarks designed to convey insulting or degrading attitudes seductive behaviors = inappropriate attempts to initiate a romantic or sexual relationship sexual bribery = involves attempts to gain sexual favors by means of promises or rewards sexual coercion = forcing sexual activity by way of threat sexual assault = involves forced sexual contact *35%-90% of women report bring harassed* they report it more than men and consider offensive remarks or sexual advancement as harassment
Guidelines for handling work romance- what is the most common way to deal with it- it is the best policy?
The most common way of dealing with romance is to do nothing- but this is not always the best policy Management needs to be sensitive to the motives that lie behind such romances and the varied effects they can have -the participants should be counseled about the impact of their relationship on te workplace- may need to limit their interaction at work or moved to a different department- if it is a continual problem one or both of the partners may need to leave
us versus them- how does this hurt the organization
can be a source of conflict within organizations; creates unnecessary divisions in the workplace, hindering the development of a positive sense of company identity and cooperation Negative effects: loss of human potential, damage to individual lives and careers, friction and conflict in the workplace, low morale, hostile work environment
Rajecki's Chicks study
chicks were dyed either red or green in order to determine if they would be attracted to chicks of the same color For example, Rajecki and Lake (1972) have demonstrated that DeKalb hybrid chicks dyed red, yellow, or green and housed in pairs of similar colors prefer chicks of their own color when tested 24 h posthatch. Chicks dyed the same color and reared in isolation exhibit no preference for one color over the other
Prejudice is composed of 3 basic components- what are they?
cognitive =beliefs about what members of the outgroup are like. These beliefs typically have the following consequences: -illusion of out-group homogeneity- all members of the given group possess the same traits or behave in the same manner -distortion of social perception (biased assimilation)no matter how individuals act their behavior is interpreted as lending support to these preconceived notions -self-fulfilling prophecies =once we believe that members of the social group posess certain traits, we tend to treat them as if these beliefs were true- this treatment may then cause those people to behave in ways that confirm our beliefs affective = refers to the feelings or emotions that ppl experience when they are in the presence of members of specific groups or when they merely think about them. results indicate that many ppl do actually experience greater anxiety and emotional arousal when interacting with persons belonging to another race than when interacting with members of their own racial group. relaxation/anxiety, emotional arousal (low versus high), and feelings of like or dislike behavioral = involves tendencies to act in negative ways toward the persons or groups who are the object of such attitudes. when these tendencies spill into overt actions, they constitute discrimination
Factor that inhibit reporting of sexual harrassment
confusing social norms, giving the offender the benefit of the doubt, desire for social acceptance, ease of ignoring minor infractions
Affect:
feelings about the attitude object -LOVE your work, HATE brocolli, and ADORE ice cream
which type of harassments were most reported by women?
gender and seductive harassment the more severe the behavior, the higher the harassment rating
When you compare your present outcomes with comparison level alternatives, this helps you determine what?
helps you determine whether you will stay at the job or leave
When you compare the outcomes you are presently receiving from a job with your comparison level, this helps you determine what?
helps you determine your satisfaction with a job
What are the origins of prejudice?
intergroup conflict, social categorization, and early learning experiences-- all explanation may play a role!
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs in relation to motivation-maintenance theory
- lower-level deficiency needs: physiological, safety and social = hygiene factors satisfaction of these needs = pay one receives, social relation with others, and physical working conditions -higher-level growth needs: esteem and self actualization = motivators involve satisfaction of these needs = growth, increased responsibility, and promotion
Effects of Workplace Romance: Not Always Negative study by Dillard and Broestzmann
- people in organizational relationships tend to arrive late or arrive early to work (women did more) - to complain more (women did more) -increased absence (Women did more) -strong increase in work enthusiasm (women did more) *the people most likely to show an improvement in job performance are those motivated by love* -positive feelings about relationship spill over to the job
Controlling violence
-"Venting" (i.e., catharsis) usually doesn't work -Screening for aggressive tendencies -Training in handling interpersonal conflicts -Developing perceptions of justice -Reducing emotionality" -Producing incompatible responses -Dealing with the causes of the anger -Applying person-oriented leadership
Similarity and interpersonal attraction: Do birds of a feather flock together?
-Assortative mating on age, race, religious affiliation, SES, education, interests, sexual attitudes, background, and some personality traits- people are more attracted to people who have similar values and status -lab studies show that liking increases when ppl agree with you -marriage rates are higher for couple who have more in common (education and age)
Social exchange theory: why people often stay in jobs they dislike and leave jobs they like- comparison level vs comparison level alt
-Comparison level (CL) = how satisfied a person will be with a certain outcome resulting from an interaction- including a employment relationship = the outcome that ppl think that they deserve in a relationship -example: amount of compensation recieved in the past can establish a CL that is used to evaluate present outcomes -when the outcome from a present relationship- with a job- exceeds the persons comparison level, he or she will be satisfied with the present relationship, when they fall below they will be dissatisfied -Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)= the outcome that people think that can be obtained from the best available option -this points out that satisfaction does not solely determine whether an individual will remain in an interaction -when the CLalt exceeds his or her present outcomes, the person is likely to leave; when the CLalt is below their present outcomes, the person is likely to stay -comparisons of these will determine if a person will remain in his or her present position or will leave
Aggression at work: destructive relationships
-Homicides are the number-one cause of traumatic death at work (jealous husbands, disgruntled employees, rapes, theft). About 15% of all violent crime occurs in the workplace. -The causes of violence: frustration, failure to achieve a desired goal, stress, personal conflicts, rejection, anger and hostility What can we do? -Need to appraise the situation -Need to evaluate one's options -Talking things out -Eliminating injustice in the workplace -Bosses from heaven -Anger management training
The pay advantage of physical attractiveness-study of MBA graduates using their yearbook photos
-conducted over a span of 10 yrs -men who were rated as more attractive in school yearbook photos received higher starting salaries and continued earning higher salaries over the ten-year period -attractive women did not receive higher starting salaries, but earned more in subsequent years -one point higher on a five-point attractiveness scale resulted in $2,600 more earnings for men and $2,150 more for women in the ten-year period
Job satisfaction- what makes us happy to be at work? What are factors related to the individual?
-Internal causes of job satisfaction: -High self-esteem- ppl with this tend to see everything they do in a favorable light -Ability to withstand stress -Internal locus of control- ppl who believe they can alter or control their own outcomes -Self-selection to the job or career -Positive but realistic expectations- ppl believe that the job can satisfy their basic needs -High status or seniority -Good personal adjustment away from work -Genetic determinants ("positive personality")- monozygotic twins that were raised apart- researchers found that 30% of their job satisfaction was due to genetics
What are factors associated with increased organizational commitment?
-Job characteristics: high levels of responsibility, opportunities for promotion, job autonomy, importance of the work -Personal characteristics: length of employment, age, personal growth needs -Company policies: employee ownership, clear organizational values, vigorous recruitment, newcomer orientation procedures
Effects of job satisfaction- how does it affect absenteeism and turnover? are the effect strong? how does it affect general life satisfaction? how does it affect personal health how does it affect mental health?
-Job satisfaction affecting absenteeism and turnover (many other causes apply as well)- the lower an individual's level of satisfaction, the more likely that person is to miss work, resign & seek other employment - the links between these factors are not strong- absence from work is not ONLY affected by satisfaction, it is also affected by distance to work, attitude twoard job, etc -Job satisfaction and life satisfaction-causal effect- job satisfaction appears to cause changes in general life satisfaction (findings that general life satisfaction affects job satisfaction is weaker)- happy job life, happy life -Job satisfaction and personal health- job satisfaction is linked to longevity of life = reduced anxiety, high self esteem and good social adjustment -Mental well-being (reduced anxiety, high self-esteem, good social adjustment)
Pratto & collegues study of job satisfaction
-MEN = overrepresented in occupations that maintain the existing social structure (law, law enforcement, military)- support dominant group -WOMEN= overrepresented in occupations that help the oppressed (social workers, civil law attorneys)- support subordinate group
Marital status and quality of life
-Marital status and quality of life: married couples versus singles--> married ppl have... -Social support, mutual monitoring of health concerns -More stable lives with fewer risks -Less loneliness -Exceptions: distressed marriages, extreme lifestyles, unusual job demands single parents: extra demands... -More than 6% of the workforce are single parents -Extra demands: divorced or widowed status, reduced income, added responsibilities and stress, lack of social support, time constraints, child care issues -Solutions: after-school programs, single-partner support groups, flex time, telecommuting, job sharing -Work and home: the spillover effect- things you do outside of work (recreation, community involvement, parenting) can spill into your work and the successes at work can carry over into your home life- the latter has positive effects on your work
Destructive relationships
-Personal characteristics and violence -The cultural socialization of males- men are rewarded for acting "tough" -History of violence and "acting out" -Emotional reactivity (volatility) -Poor impulse control -Alcohol and drug use -Low level of mental development -Type A personality -Violent media -Work stressors -frustrations -insults or attacks
Stamp of stereotypes study
-Resistance of stereotypes: encouraging an "accuracy set," discouraging a reliance on stereotypic cues, paid people to be accurate in determining height of women and men and photographs -told clearly not to follow stereotypes, and they still did -all fail to counter stereotyping (the perceived heights of men and women)- said men were taller than women
Discrimination based on gender
-Sexism: negative stereotyping and discrimination based on gender -Gender role stereotypes: actual group differences tend to be slight, and individual differences are underestimated -Countering gender role stereotypes: individuating information about competence puts people in a "special subgroup"
Office Romances- proximitity
-The proximity factor and assortative mating-we tend to like people who are close, working together create opportunities for communication and interaction- can cover similarities in values and opinions
romantic couples in the workplace- what do they look like
-Trading attributes: youth and beauty for education, status, resources, age - usually equally attractive ppl -older, better educated and of higher status- male
discrimination
-attitudes are not always reflected in overt actions- some people have extrem hate toward certain groups, but out of fear of retaliations, laws, and social pressure- they do not act
Consequences of sexual harassment- on the person assaulted
Consequences of sexual harassment: low job satisfaction, psychological problems, health problems, absenteeism, desire to leave the job
Dual Career Couples
-distribution of household chores: women tend to get more work than men -Stress, mental and physical health concerns: men whose wives work tend to have poorer mental health ; both husbands and wives show similar stress reactions to work-related probs -daycare, guilt- guilt of leaving your children for large parts of the week in day care -Job sharing- reduces employees income and benefits, but its a way to help with all of the issues listed above bc it gives increased flexibility
job discrimination
-includes the reluctance to hire persons belonging to certain groups, failure to promote them, and attempts to pay them less than other employees -this occurs to racial and ethnic minorities, women, older workers, sometimes younger workers In hiring, training, job assignment, pay and promotion, denial of assistance and benefits to certain groups tokenism- hiring some "show " women (black or hispanic) in order to comply with the letter, if not the spirit, of the law.
Main point to motivation-maintenance theory- how does one feel job satisfaction / how does one prevent job dissatisfaction? what is the point in order to have high morale?
-job satisfaction is produced by the presences of motivator factors such as opportunity for growth -the presence of hygiene factors, such as pay, prevents job dissatisfaction the key to high morale is ensuring they have all of these components (good pay, job security, pleasant working conditions, and ample opportunity to grow)
Physically attractive ppl are more socially skilled and more popular-why?
-likely a result of being treated more positively in social interactions
Liking versus loving (Z. Rubin)- difference between like and love, what are the 3 components of love?
-loving and liking are distinct states -friendship requires a primarily positive evaluation of another person love requires a number of factors = 1) strong need for affiliation or dependency ("I just can't do it without him"), 2) desire to help and benefit the other ("I would do anything for her"), and 3) sense of exclusiveness—and passion ("I feel very possessive about him").
Occupational differences in job satisfaction: who reports higher satisfaction? managers, technical, professional workers and self-employed OR blue collar personnel
-managers, technical, professional workers and self-employed people generally report higher satisfaction than blue collar personnel
what are differences that are noted in males / females- are they true or false?
-men are seen as aggressive forceful persistent and decisive -women are seen as passive, submissive, dependent and emotional -THIS IS FALSE- men and women do not differ as consistently or to as large a degree in these ways as stereortypes suggest women are seen as less suited for managerial positions even though they possess the appropriate credentials
Older vs younger in job satisfaction
-older workers report greater satisfaction with their jobs than younger workers- bc professionals and older workers gain more prestige from their jobs, involved in more challenging job activities, and have more control over their positions than younger workers and members of the rank and file highly siccessful male execs who are in mid-life often report doubts about their career, value conflicts and a sense of alienation from their careers
Propinquity (physical proximity) and familiarity- with friends
-one obvious factor to friendship is that we need to be close in proximity to eachother. -ex: residential location, seating position, configuration at work -we are attracted to people that are more familiar to us than to strangers- the more we frequently encounter ppl, the more favorably we feel about them -Study of Chinese kanji: -Study of people crossing paths in a large house:
Romance and job performance: adv & disadv
-people usually see work romances as negative- bc they think it reduce productivity and job involvement disadv: -less productivity -gossip, suspision, and jealousy -different ranks = lack of credibility for the person in the higher rank (wont be able to effectively manage)- peers react in a very negative way when they find out - at the beginning of relationship, you are investing too much time and energy into the relationship during work hours adv: those who have a love motive relationship are likely trying to impress heir supervisor and thereby avoid negative reaction to such a romance-- positive for productivity and job involvement
Organizational commitment- what is it and how does it help organizations?
-the extent to which an individual identifies with and feels a part of the organization of which he or she is a member and desires to remain employed by that organization -Producing organizational commitment = committed employees are less likely to leave the organization and have lower rates of absenteeism -perform better in their job - willing to make personal sacrifices & share with others -(continuance commitment versus affective commitment)
When people are only seen to follow as their stereotype, how does this affect them?
1) limits their coworkers' potential to act as individuals- ppl become confined to their roles that are dictated by the stereotype; 2) lose a great deal of freedom to develop their individuality
Attitude includes 3 components: what are they?
1. Affect 2. Behavior 3. Cognition
Types of love and how the love components influence them
1. liking: passion: no, intimacy: yes, commitment: no 2. infatuation: passion: yes, intimacy: no, commitment: no 3. romantic: passion: yes, intimacy: yes, commitment: no 4. companionate: passion: no intimacy: yes, commitment: yes 5: consummate: passion: yes, intimacy: no, commitment: yes
What two things allow us to see the influence of job satisfaction in work behavior?
1. strength of our views 2. their degree of specificity determines which outcomes prevail
Lars and the Real Girl
?
the critical incident technique
A procedure used to measure job satisfaction: asked them to describe times when they felt especially satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs USED IN HERTZBERG'S STUDY
Prejudice
A special type of attitude- generally a negative one- toward the members of some distinct social group
We tend to like people that have ____________
Attractive features: -Intelligence, personality, looks, talent, possessions --> in initial encounter physical appearance are particularly important -The "what is beautiful is good" stereotype- we tend to assume that individuals who are above avg in physical attractiveness are also above avg social competence, intelligence, mental health, and happiness- NOT NECESSARILY TRUE -The "beauty is on the inside" effect-ppl with a positive self image can will be more likely to have social success- can even help you more than physical looks- SMILE MORE = LIKED MORE -The pay advantage of physical attractiveness-study of MBA graduates using their yearbook photos- men that were rated attractive based on their yearbook photo were paid more initially and throughout than their counterparts; women were not paid more initially but their salaries increased quicker- this could be bc their self image was positive, thus reflecting as confidence and competence / better performances -The matching hypothesis in partner selection- we tend to be drawn to and choose people who are similar in physical attractiveness- look for ppl with equivalent value in job pay, education, looks, etc.- old men in this way may get to marry beautiful younger women
Certain factors affect job satisfaction in what way?- what is previously said
Certain conditions either increase/decrease job satisfaction, depending on the extent to which they are present in work settings
Why do prejudice occur? Intergroup conflict
Competition = as more and more cubans arrived, they began to compete with the previous residents for jobs, housing, and schools- this started some anti-cuban attitudes realistic conflict theory = direct economic competition between distinct social groups- when ppl are put in direct competition for valued rewards they come to dislike and disparage one another "us" versus "them" = human beings have the tendency to divide people into two different groups- similar people are in their ingroup, different people are in their outgroup (social categorization = tendency to divide people into group)- this causes ppl in the outgorup to be seen in a negative light, to mistrust them, and to seem all similar
When college students were asked to indicate the reason for the break up of romantic liasons?
DIFFERENCES: they frequently cited boredom, differences in interests, in sexual attitudesm background, marriage ideas, etc
Exchange versus communal relationships: Clark and Mills
Exchange: People usually seek a fair balance of rewards or benefits in a relationship- if one person is providing most of the rewards, the partner is likely to become dissatisfied and may break up the relationship Communal: partners are primarily concerned with satisfying each other's needs rather than with a fair balancing of rewards -Short-term equity is important in exchange relationships -Only long-term equity is important in communal relationships
Job satisfaction- what makes us happy to be at work? What are factors related to the characteristics of work settings?
External causes of job satisfaction: -Work that is interesting and challenging but not too tiring-ppls like to be challenged not overwhelmed -Fair reward systems that provide a sense of control -Good relations with coworkers -Pleasant, positive work environment that facilitates the attainment of one's work goals -Low physical and psychological stress -Perception that the organization is committed to you as an employee
forms of discrimination
Forms of discrimination: avoidance- avoiding a group at work or in their personal lives (mild) exclusion- excluding groups from living in certain neighborhood joining certain social orgs, sending their kids to certain school, etc (stronger) denial of opportunities and benefits, exploitation, assault, violence towards the group (strongest) abuse, hate crimes, murder
Hertzberg's motivation-maintenance model
Herzberg's study of 200 engineers and accountants- asked them to describe times when they felt especially satisfied or dissatisfied with their jobs (the critical incident technique) -The results led him to propose his motivation maintenance theory (hygiene or maintenance factors versus motivators) -Hygiene or Maintenance factors: work factors related to physical working conditions, pay, job security, relations with others--> to the extent to which these conditions were positive, feelings of dissatisfaction were prevented = CONDITIONS SURROUNDING ONE'S WORK -Motivating factors: related to the nature of the work itself and the challenges it presents, feelings of achievement and accomplishment, recognition, promotion opportunities, increased responsibility, opportunities for personal growth = THE JOB AN INDIVIDUAL PERFORMS
Dealing with Harassment
Management needs to make it clear that this behavior is not tolerated 1.the behaviors that constitute sexual harassment should be clearly outlined to all employees 2 specific procedures for dealing with sexual harassment should be outlines 3informal procedure that protectcs the privacy of the employees are preferred- mandatory formal investigation may inhibit reporting- in most cases, the offenders may not have been aware that heir behavior was offensive and the problem can be easily rectified 4. informal assistance froma third party, such as HR- employees should not be required to go through their bosses bc they can often be the perpetrators 5. a formal process for fact finding and action should be available if needed 6. counseling should be available to help individuals directly confront the harasser either in person or in written form 7. the department should attend a training program on the detection and prevention of sexual harassment -needs to have a clear procedure for reporting and dealing with them Typical outcomes: 80% reprimand, 20% firing 3/4 of companies have written policies about it Clear policy statement =procedures for filing and acting on complaints, procedures to protect privacy and confidentiality, use of third-parties, procedures for fact finding and action, counseling, prevention
Discrimination
Refers to a specific negative action directed towards the members of some specific group
What are two issues that strongly influence the occurrence of sexual harassment in the workplace?
The organizational climate: some places are more tolerant of sexual harassment than others- they dont take complaints seriously the gender context: male-dominated workplace are associated with higher levels of sexual harassment can be common to a job or workplace- off-color jokes, the presences of sexual reading materials, and pressures to go to sexually oriented clubs for after-work gatherings -ambient sexual harassment- people may be aware of sexual harassment experiences either by direct observation or through the grapevine- so it is indirect exposure to sexual harassment.
Dutton and Aron's (1974) Two Bridges study
There were two conditions: 1) -Walk on the high suspension bridge -Height induces fast heart rate -Encounter the attractive woman after -High heart rate seems to indicate attraction -60% use her number to call her back 2) -Walk on the low stable bridge -Heart rate is normal, not elevated -Encounter the attractive woman after -No heightened arousal to misattribute as attraction to her -Only 30% use her number to call her back men misinterpreted the arousal produced by the bridge as sexual attraction to the female interviewer
Reinforcement-affect model: Byrne and Clore
This model focuses on the similarity of opinions and values: "if it feels good, do it!" -- satisfy needs -events that satisfy needs are called rewards or reinforcers -to the extent that the relationship is associated with these rewards, strong / positive feelings can develop from the relationship (attention, praise, affection) or pleasant events associated with the relationship (parties, movies, romantic evening). -since agreement from others serves to validate our view of the world, it serves as a powerful reward and produces positive feelings or affects -from this perspective, love is simply a strong desire of liking produced by the rewards associated with the relationship
job satisfaction is an ___________; why does this make it difficult to analyze the influence of job satisfaction on work behavior
attitude- this is why the influence of job satisfaction on work behavior is not always easily identified- attitudes, in turn, do not always have affect behaviors in a simple or clear-cut way
socially learning prejudice
babies dont come into the world with a set racial hatred, sexist attitudes, or techniques of job discrimination- that hate is acquired- direct socialization- they hear these views expressed by parents, friends, teachers and others and they are rewarded for adopting them(praise and approval is given to them) -indirect socialization-mass media also inspires prejudice- minority groups (ethnic groups and women) were depicted in a negative light on tv/films- now this is starting to change
Cognition:
beliefs about the attitude object -May believe that your employers are fair or that they don't have your best interests in mind
continuance commitment vs affective commitment
continuance = an individual's inclination to continue to work for a company bc he or she cannot afford to leave = associated with economic factors such as job benefits and salary affective = desire to stay with the organization because he or she agrees with its policies and wants to remain affiliated with the business = Associated with aspects of work that make employees feel competent and effacious
Do opposites attract? What does research say?
contrary to the evidence- there has been some research that suggests that opposites do attract and make even better marriage partners -individuals with different characteristics complement each other's weaknesses- sometimes this can help, BUT basic differences in social inclinations are more likely to cause problems - not surprising that similarity rather than complimentary is the main determinant of marital success.. -Examples of when opposites (usually) don't attract: introversion/extraversion, sensation seeking, sociosexuality -Examples of when opposites (rarely) do attract: neuroticism, sadism/masochism, complementary interests
Descriptive stereotype Prescriptive stereotype
descriptive: indicates how most ppl in the group supposedly behave and what they prefer- informs us about the ability of members of the stereotyped group ex: black ppl are good athletes prescriptive: tells certain groups how they should think, feel and behave- society often demands that an individual conform to these beliefs and the penalties for non-conformance can be severe ex: a boy who goes not follow gender stereotypes and plays with dolls
Cultural differences (Hofstede): career success versus quality of life, social needs versus ego needs- in job satisfaction
differences in culture: career success: stress the acquisition of material possessions and individual assertiveness ex: US quality of life: emphasize relationships among ppl, concern for othersm and life enjoyability as most important ex: scandanavian countries, japan, and austria ex: swedish policy of maternity / maternity leave whenever they want- manager of swedish postal service took several months off to be with his kids.
Mid-career plateau
during mid-career, between the ages of 35-50- face dilemmas at work -they are no longer viewed as "learners" within the organiz.. & their mistakes carry greater consequences - reaching the mid-career plateau may result in a sense of job dissatisfaction during this stage many ppl leaved their occupations and redefine their career goals -developmental factors and changes in what one wants from the workplace can override the attraction of objective measures of success such as more money and prestige.
social competition
each group views itself as somehow better than its rivals and prejudice arises of this clash of social perceptions perceived superiority of in-group is tied to ones self esteem
What does it mean that a certain person is prejudiced against members of some social group?
it means that he or she tends to reject these members or evaluate them negatively merely because they belong to that group their individual behaviors, skills, or characteristics make little difference to the prejudiced person and rarely enter the picture
As applied to the work place, work-related attitudes consist of
lasting feelings, beliefs, and behavioral intentions associated with the various components of our job (setting, nature of our work, and the entire organization)
Mixed motives of love
love motivation: involved sincere desire for romance and longterm companionship ego motivation: are interested in excitement, adventure and sexual experience job motivation: are interested in work related benefits such as security, power, improved job conditions and advancement
Varca, shaffer, and mccauley study of job satisfaction
measured job satisfaction in 400 graduates (half male and half female): -high-level jobs such as marketing manager = greater satisfaction in men than in women ---> this fulfills a mans need for earnings and prestige -low-level jobs = greater satisfaction in women than men----> this fulfils a woman's need to have a more person-oriented job
compensatory expectations- case of misbehaving minister
members of groups will "make up" for their stereotypically inconsistent behaviors performed by other group members people were presented with behaviors that contradicted their stereotypes of clergy members -behavior was midly inconsistent in one case = minister read sexually explicit magazines for his own pleasure -in another case, the minister was described as having an affair with a married woman and having sexually assaulted a sever year old child -when participants saw the midly inconsistent behavior, they expected that the minister would perform good acts in the future that would make up for this behavior -when participants heard of the devious behavior, they ceased to expect that the deviant member would behave in prosocial ways -this compensatory expectation allowed ppl to maintain their stereotypes that ministers behave in pro social ways -thus one way that we maintain our stereotypes in the face of disconfirming evidence is by predicting that members of groups will compensate for observed inconsistency.
Gender difference in job satisfaction
men value jobs that give them status, prestige, high income women value jobs that give them social relations and opportunities to help others This does not mean that each gender does not want what the other values, BUT it does show that each gender may be less dissatisfied not having what the other values- ex: males may be less dissatisfied with a job that does not offer positive social relations than females are. -MEN = overrepresented in occupations that maintain the existing social structure (law, law enforcement, military) -WOMEN= overrepresented in occupations that help the oppressed (social workers, civil law attorneys)
How can cultural differences effect work situation in neg ways
misunderstandings occur EX: at 5pm, if a project isnt finished, workers that value their quality of life are likely to leave in order to be with family or have work balance, but this can translate to international clients as low commitment to the project
Those who smile more, are rated as ____________
more attractive
Different mixes of love- what is the most common?
motivated by love and ego = passionate love relationship-- the most common type of love in the workplace both motivated by love = companionate motivated by ego = a fling man with ego + job motives and a woman with love and job motives = male-dominated utilitarian r man with ego + female with ego and job motives = female-dominated utilitarian
neg and positives of resisting change in our beliefs
our cognitive structures are so resistant to change. if every new person we met represented an unexplored frontier, it could take a considerable amount of effort to carry this out we do not easily change our beliefs bc relying on these beliefs provides us with a sense of prediction and control that is critical to our functioning the negative side is that social categorizations can create stereotypical beliefs that control other ppl and produce discrimination and bias- the price of this is incalculable and intolerable
What has more of an influence on our personal characteristics than our attractiveness judged by others?
our self-perception of attractiveness
An integrative perspective: Sternberg's love dimensions (passion, intimacy, decision/commitment)
passion- represents the emotional and arousal factors involved in love intimacy- the feeling of closeness and attachment decision/commitment- the decision that one is in love and is going to try to stay in the relationship for a long period of time
From passionate love to companionate love
passionate love phase: lasts a few months, high level of excitement discovering knew things about the other companionate love: difficulty to maintain a high level of excitement about the relationship as familiarity increases / no longer the thrill of discovery- sexual attraction is still there, less idealization, strong feelings of affection and caring persist
Walster and Berdheid's 3 factor theory of love- What does passionate love require?
passionate love requires 1) presence of an appropriate and desirable love object (individual), 2) culturally based beliefs and expectations about love, and 3) a heightened level of emotional arousal - supposedly when we are strongly aroused in the presence of an attractive person, we may interpret this emotional state as love- our culture associates love with such emotional states- these could just be the result of sexual attraction
Behavior:
predisposition to act in certain ways toward specific examples of the attitude object -sometimes we act in ways that are consistent with our attitudes (we stay at jobs we like) / sometimes we are inconsistent (we may leave jobs we like)
Social dominance orientation as a function of social role (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999)
publice defender, students (in the negatives), jurors, police (in the postiives) -public defender being the lowest rated, and police being the highest rated
stereotypes
refers to a person's beliefs and expectations about a person based on the individual's group membership- you use this to form impressions of others- research shows that the belief that stereotypes are true will persist even when though our interactions with specific members of the group disagree with our general beliefs
devaluing female achievement- men vs women
success by men is attributed to their ability or effort / assumed he worked hard or possesses a high level of ability success by women is attributed to mainly luck or and easy task
social categorization
tendency to divide ppl into group, related to the intergroup issue of the us vs them mentality
Heilman and collegues- study on gender role stereotypes
the researchers repeatedly found that women are perceived as less suited for jobs traditionally filled by men and that any characteristics that serve to emphasize or activate female gender role stereotypes tend to intensify such negative effects example: attractive women are considered more feminine, and therefore less suited for managerial positions- this can be countered by CLEAR evidence of a woman's ability- photographer
When love turns to anger: the arousal re-attribution hypothesis
the sexual arousal and excitement of love relationships may transfer to the anger produced in relationships by conflicts or jealousies
Certain factors affect job satisfaction in what way?- what is the opposing side discussed in chpt- HERTZBERG THEORY
theory offered by hertzberg- job satisfaction (high levels of work motivation) = related to motivators- factors having to do with opportunities to grow within workplace job dissatisfaction (low levels of motivation) = related to hygiene or maintenance factors- factors having to do with conditions surrounding jobs, such as working conditions and pay
Gender differences- which gender is more satisfied with their job?
women report lower levels of job satisfaction with their jobs than men - this is because of comparisons of their pay and promotion opportunity with men holding their similar positions -since there is often a disparity in favor of men, women's job satisfaction may be reduced
do women consider their own sex inferior?
yes; and even when the facts give no facts to support the belief, they will persist in downgrading the competence- of their fellow females
