Chapter 11 | Motivation: Background and Theories

McClelland's Learned Needs

- A strong need creates the motivation to use appropriate behaviors to satisfy it, and needs are learned from societal culture - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Uses pictures to analyze individual differences such as need for achievement, power, and affiliation

Equity Theory

- Equity: The ratio of one person's outcomes to inputs equals that of another's - Equity Theory: Focuses on individuals' perceptions of how fairly they are treated relative to others - Inequity can be highly detrimental - for example, when a new worker starts at the current salary of a long tenured worker - Can be reduced by change work effort, outcomes, perceptions, or even leaving

Need

- Motivations often stem from needs, any deficiency someone experiences at a particular point in time - The goal is to satisfy that deficiency, usually through setting a goal, completing it, reaping the rewards, and then reassessing the need

Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)

1. Hygiene Factors: Involve the presence of absence of job dissatisfiers, like working conditions, pay, company policies, and interpersonal relationships (focus on dissatisfaction of lower level needs) 2. Motivators: Influence job satisfaction based on fulfillment of high level needs, like achievement, recognition, responsibility, and opportunity for growth

Task-Specific Self-Efficacy

A person's beliefs in his or her capabilities to do what is required to accomplish a specific task

Effort-To-Performance Expectancy

A person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance

Need

Anything an individual requires or wants

Scientific Management

Approach to motivation that assumes that employees are motivated by money

Acquired Needs Framework

Centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power

ERG theory

Describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs

Process-Based Perspectives

Focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs

E-P Expectancy:

Putting effort into a given task will lead to high performance

All of the following statements about the equity theory of motivation are correct EXCEPT: a) It is a content theory of motivation. b) It is best known through the work of J. Stacy Adams. c) Its essence is that perceived inequity is a motivating state. d) It holds that people try to resolve the inequities they perceive they are experiencing. e) It holds that people who feel underpaid will reduce their work efforts to compensate for missing rewards.

a) It is a content theory of motivation.

______ needs tend to take on higher importance in collectivist societies. a) Individualistic b) Social c) Esteem d) Higher-order e) Self-actualization

b) Social

In the two-factor theory of motivation, __________ are associated with the job context, such as working conditions, interpersonal relations, organizational policies, and salary. a) existence factors b) satisfier factors c) hygiene factors d) affiliation factors e) relatedness factors

c) hygiene factors

Which of the following is the correct order of Maslow's needs from the lowest (lower-order need) to the highest (higher-order need)? a) Safety, social, physiological, esteem, and self-actualization b) Esteem, safety, social, physiological, and self-actualization c) Social, esteem, self-actualization, physiological, and safety d) Physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization e) Physiological, social, safety, self-actualization, and esteem

d) Physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization

Joanna likes attention and is driven by seeking influence over others. According to McClelland, Joanna has a high need for _____________. a) achievement b) self esteem c) affiliation d) power e) relatedness

d) power

Since content theories suggest that motivation results from individual needs, managers should __________. a) apply motivation techniques that apply to most employees b) use the same motivation techniques for every situation c) change their motivational techniques annually to stay abreast of employee needs d) understand individual employee needs and create work environments that respond to them e) test motivation techniques in a few work situations for general use

d) understand individual employee needs and create work environments that respond to them

According to Herzberg's two-factor theory, which of the following factors are the sources of job satisfaction? a.) Subsistence b.) Hygiene c.) Teachable d.) Motivator e.) Inducement

d.) Motivator

ERG Theory (Alderfer) Modified hierarchy of needs pyramid - simplifies the needs into three types:

- Existence - Relatedness - Growth - Alderfer felt that movement upward is more complex with these three steps, which reflects... - Frustration-Regression Principle: Failure to meet a higher need can cause a regression back down to an already satisfied lower-order need

Motivation

- Probably the single most important factor there is, period. - If you don't care, it doesn't matter how good you are - Definition: Forces acting on an employee that initiate and direct behavior - Real Definition: WHY

Expectancy Theory

- Proposes that motivation depends on individuals' expectations about their ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards - E-P Expectancy: Putting effort into a given task will lead to high performance - P-O Expectancy: Successful performance of a task will lead to the desired outcome

Equity Theory Restoration

1. Change the inputs 2. Change the outcomes 3. Change the reference person 4. Change the inputs or outcomes of the reference person 5. Change the situation

2 types of Motivation Theories

1. Content - Factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior 2. Process - Factors external to a person that analyze how behaviors are energized, directed, sustained, and stopped

Hygiene Factors

Are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security

Motivation Factors

Are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition

Need-Based Theories

Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior

Hierarchy of Needs

Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance

Human Resource Approach

Assumes that people want to contribute and are able to make genuine contributions to organizations

2. Process

Factors external to a person that analyze how behaviors are energized, directed, sustained, and stopped

1. Content

Factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior

Frustration-Regression Principle:

Failure to meet a higher need can cause a regression back down to an already satisfied lower-order need

Equity Theory

Focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity

Two-Factor Theory

Identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction

Justice leads to....

Justice leads to feelings of fairness Fairness leads to trust (in supervisors) Trust leads to satisfaction Satisfaction leads to performance Performance leads to profitability

P-O Expectancy:

Successful performance of a task will lead to the desired outcome

Expectancy Theory

Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it

Equity

The belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others

Justice Organizational

The degree individuals feel fairly treated within their organization

Need for Achievement

The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past

Need for Power

The desire to control the resources in one's environment

Need for Affiliation

The need for human companionship

Justice Distributive

The perception of fairness of distribution of resources and rewards

Justice Interpersonal

The perception of fairness of employee treatment

Justice Informational

The perception of fairness of the communication to employees

Justice Procedural

The perception of fairness of the process of reward distribution

Motivation

The set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways

Which of the following content theories of motivation is associated with the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power? a) Acquired needs theory b) Hierarchy of needs theory c) Two-factor theory d) Motivation-hygiene theory e) ERG theory

a) Acquired needs theory

___________ is the degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy. a) Distributive justice b) Instrumentality c) Procedural justice d) Interactional justice e) Organizational justice

a) Distributive justice

______________ is classified as a content theory. a) ERG theory b) Expectancy theory c) Goal-setting theory d) Equity theory e) Probability theory

a) ERG theory

Which equation correctly reflects Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation? a) Motivation = expectancy X instrumentality X valence b) Motivation = expectancy X equity X rewards c) Motivation = expectancy + equity + rewards d) Motivation = expectancy X rewards X valence e) Motivation = expectancy + rewards + valence

a) Motivation = expectancy X instrumentality X valence

Which statement about acquired needs theory is correct? a) People with a high need for achievement prefer individual responsibilities, challenging goals, and performance feedback. b) People with a high need for power are drawn to interpersonal relationships and opportunities for communication. c) People with a high need for affiliation like attention and recognition. d) People with a high need for achievement will also have a high need for affiliation. e) People with a low need for achievement will also have a low need for affiliation.

a) People with a high need for achievement prefer individual responsibilities, challenging goals, and performance feedback.

Which of the following reflects concerns with expectancy theory? a) The multiplier effect is still in question. b) It fails to help explain any cross-cultural management situations. c) Little research has been conducted. d) The research can only be replicated with the original method. e) It is too culture bound.

a) The multiplier effect is still in question.

Which of the following is a limitation of Herzberg's two-factor theory? a) The theory may be method bound. b) The theory has been scientifically verified with methods other than the original. c) The theory does not account for regression. d) The theory links motivation and needs to both satisfaction and performance. e) The theory fails and does not clearly categorize salary.

a) The theory may be method bound.

Locke and Latham goal-setting research found that __________. a) difficult goals lead to higher performance than "do your best" or easy goals b) difficult goals frustrate workers c) performance is higher with easy goals d) specific goals lead to lower performance e) subconscious goals and conscious goals are not linked

a) difficult goals lead to higher performance than "do your best" or easy goals

According to expectancy theory, managers can influence workers' __________ by selecting people with proper abilities, training them well, providing them the needed resources, and identifying clear performance goals. a) expectancies b) instrumentalities c) reinforcers d) valences e) inducements

a) expectancies

According to equity theory, __________ exists when an individual feels that he or she has received relatively less than others have received in proportion to work inputs. a) felt negative inequity b) perceived positive inequity c) internalized negative inequity d) tacit negative inequity e) assumed negative inequity

a) felt negative inequity

In the context of motivation, persistence refers to __________. a) the length of time a person sticks with a given action b) the amount of effort a person puts forth c) an individual's choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives d) the different needs that an individual is trying to satisfy e) the consequences of an individual's behavior

a) the length of time a person sticks with a given action

According to the two-factor theory of motivation, all of the following are sources of job dissatisfaction EXCEPT: a) work itself. b) organizational policies and administration. c) supervision. d) working conditions. e) base wage or salary.

a) work itself.

__________ is classified as a process theory. a) Acquired needs theory b) Equity theory c) Herzberg's two-factor theory d) Hierarchy of needs theory e) ERG theory

b) Equity theory

Which of the following needs did Maslow describe as higher-order needs? a) Esteem, social, and safety b) Self-actualization and esteem c) Safety, self-actualization, and social d) Social and esteem e) Self-actualization and physiological

b) Self-actualization and esteem

Sharon, a member of a book club, a sewing club, and a tennis club strives to maintain strong interpersonal relationships. She enjoys feeling a sense of belonging. According to Maslow, Sharon is driven by which these needs? a) Self-actualization b) Social c) Esteem d) Safety e) Physiological

b) Social

________ conducted research on subconscious goal motivation. a) Abraham Maslow b) Stajkovic, Locke, and Blair c) David McClelland d) Clayton Alderfer e) Frederick Herzberg

b) Stajkovic, Locke, and Blair

According to expectancy theory, managers can influence workers' __________ by clarifying performance-reward relationships and confirming these relationships when rewards are actually given for performance accomplishments. a) expectancies b) instrumentalities c) reinforcers d) valences e) inducements

b) instrumentalities

According to McClelland, it is __________. a) not possible to teach people to develop need profiles required for success in different jobs b) possible to teach people to develop need profiles required for success in different jobs c) an employee's responsibility to teach their managers of personal need profiles required for success in different jobs d) an employee's responsibility to request that their managers develop need profiles required for success in different jobs e) an employee's responsibility to develop need profiles required for success in their respective manager's jobs

b) possible to teach people to develop need profiles required for success in different jobs

In the context of motivation, level refers to __________. a) the length of time a person sticks with a given action b) the amount of effort a person puts forth c) an individual's choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives d) the different needs that an individual is trying to satisfy e) the consequences of an individual's behavior

b) the amount of effort a person puts forth

According to expectancy theory, the value the individual attaches to various work outcomes is known as __________. a) expectancy b) valence c) instrumentality d) interactional justice e) equity

b) valence

Social comparison is the basic foundation of which theory? a.) Reinforcement b.) Equity c.) Expectancy d.) Goal setting e.) ERG

b.) Equity

Process theories of motivation focus on which of the following? a.) How a person will respond to types of leadership direction b.) How cognitive processes as thoughts and decisions within the minds of people influence their behavior c.) When a person will react to specific management styles d.) Who will be a more appropriate manager for an employee e.) What work environment will suit an employee's personality better

b.) How cognitive processes as thoughts and decisions within the minds of people influence their behavior

Which of the following comparisons of Alderfer's ERG theory and Maslow's needs hierarchy is correct? a) ERG theory collapses Maslow's five need levels into two need categories. b) ERG theory includes a frustration-digression component, but Maslow's theory does not. c) ERG theory contends that more than one need may be activated at a particular point in time, whereas Maslow's theory does not. d) ERG theory provides a timeline for action, but Maslow's theory does not. e) ERG theory focuses on the consequences of an individual's behavior, whereas Maslow's theory does not.

c) ERG theory contends that more than one need may be activated at a particular point in time, whereas Maslow's theory does not.

Which of the following needs are addressed in Alderfer's theory? a) Expectations, relationships, and goals b) Equity, reinforcers, and goals c) Existence, relatedness, and growth d) Existence, relatedness, and goals e) Esteem, relationships, and growth

c) Existence, relatedness, and growth

Which of the following statements is true with regards to the research on Maslow's needs hierarchy? a) Lower-order needs become more important as individuals move up the corporate ladder. b) Higher-order needs become less important as individuals move up the corporate ladder. c) Higher-order needs become more important as individuals move up the corporate ladder. d) Higher and lower-order needs become equally important as individuals move up the corporate ladder. e) Higher and lower-order needs become less important as individuals move up the corporate ladder.

c) Higher-order needs become more important as individuals move up the corporate ladder.

Which of the following is true of the use of Maslow's needs hierarchy? a) It is not pertinent for cultures outside of the United States. b) It should be consistent across different cultures. c) It can vary across cultures. d) It is more effective in non-United States cultures. e) It is not commonly used outside of the United States.

c) It can vary across cultures.

Which one of the following statements about the application and/or implications of equity theory is false? a) What may seem fair and equitable to a team leader might be perceived as unfair and inequitable by a team member after comparisons are made with other team members. b) Feelings of inequity are determined solely by the individual's interpretation of the situation. c) People who feel they are overpaid tend to decrease the quantity or quality of their work, whereas people who feel they are underpaid tend to increase the quantity or quality of their work. d) People are less comfortable when they are under-rewarded than when they are over-rewarded. e) In collectivist cultures, people seem to be more concerned about equality than equity.

c) People who feel they are overpaid tend to decrease the quantity or quality of their work, whereas people who feel they are underpaid tend to increase the quantity or quality of their work.

In Maslow's needs hierarchy, __________ needs must be satisfied before __________ needs are activated, and __________ needs must be satisfied before __________ needs are activated, and so on. a) Physiological; esteem; social; safety b) Physiological; social; esteem; safety c) Physiological; safety; social, esteem d) Esteem; safety; esteem; social e) Self-actualization; esteem; safety; social

c) Physiological; safety; social, esteem

According to Alderfer, which needs reflect a desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships? a) Existence b) Esteem c) Relatedness d) Self-actualization e) Growth

c) Relatedness

Manny has always been driven by the need to work more efficiently, solve problems, and master complex tasks. Manny is classified as driven by a need for: a) power. b) safety. c) achievement. d) affiliation. d) esteem

c) achievement.

According to McClelland, someone with a high need for _________ is drawn to interpersonal relationships and opportunities for communication. a) achievement b) self esteem c) affiliation d) power e) relatedness

c) affiliation

Herzberg recommends using _________ to build motivators into job content. a) pay b) improved working conditions c) job enrichment d) hygiene factors e) Maslow's hierarchy of needs

c) job enrichment

The ERG theory contends that __________. a) only one need may be activated at the same time b) only two needs may be activated at the same time c) more than one need may be activated at the same time d) all three needs may not be activated at the same time e) less than two needs must be activated at the same time

c) more than one need may be activated at the same time

The degree to which the rules and procedures specified by policies are properly followed in all cases to which they are applied is known as __________. a) distributive justice b) instrumentality c) procedural justice d) interactional justice e) organizational justice

c) procedural justice

All of the following descriptions of Maslow's needs hierarchy are correct EXCEPT: a) research evidence suggests that the needs in Maslow's hierarchy exist in a flexible rather than rigid order. b) the five need levels may vary according to a person's career stage, the size of the organization, or geographical location. c) the satisfaction of a need at one level will always decrease its importance and increase the importance of the next lower need. d) the order of needs in the hierarchy may differ across cultures. e) social needs tend to be dominant in more collectivist societies.

c) the satisfaction of a need at one level will always decrease its importance and increase the importance of the next lower need.

With regards to motivation, which of the following best defines direction? a.) The length of time a person sticks with a given action b.) The amount of effort a person puts forth c.) An individual's choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives d.) The different needs that an individual is trying to satisfy e.) The consequences of an individual's behavior

c.) An individual's choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives

According to Maslow, lower-order needs are: a.) social, esteem, and self-actualization. b.) esteem, social, and safety. c.) physiological, safety, and social. d.) esteem and physiological. e.) safety and self-actualization.

c.) physiological, safety, and social.

If the average worker can produce 25 ornaments an hour, which goal is likely to lead to the best performance? a) 23 b) 25 c) Do your best d) 28 e) 40

d) 28

Which theory is based on the phenomenon of social comparison which states that people will act to eliminate any perceived inequity in the rewards they receive for their work in comparison with the rewards that others receive? a) Acquired needs b) ERG c) Expectancy d) Equity e) Reinforcement

d) Equity

According to equity theory, which of the following exists when an individual feels that he or she has received relatively more than others have received? a) Positive inequity b) Equity c) Assumed positive inequity d) Felt positive inequity e) Interactional justice

d) Felt positive inequity

__________ is the process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing. a) MBO b) Equity c) Expectancy d) Goal setting e) Motivation

d) Goal setting

The expectancy theory of motivation predicts that a person will be motivated to work hard when __________. a) expectancy is high and instrumentality and valence are low b) instrumentality is high and expectancy and valence are low c) valence is high and expectancy and instrumentality are low d) expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are all high e) expectancy or instrumentality or valence equals zero

d) expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are all high

According to the two-factor theory of motivation, all of the following are sources of job satisfaction EXCEPT: a) opportunity for advancement. b) sense of achievement. c) sense of responsibility. d) working conditions. e) feeling of personal growth.

d) working conditions.

As a manager at Icon International, Nicole is driven by a personal sense of competence, respect from others, and recognition through various awards. According to Maslow, Nicole is driven by which of these needs? a) Safety b) Physiological c) Self-actualization d) Social e) Esteem

e) Esteem

Which of the following statements accurately describes Herzberg's hygiene factors? a) Hygiene factors include achievement and recognition. b) Hygiene factors refer to job content. c) Hygiene factors do not prevent job dissatisfaction from occurring. d) Hygiene factors contribute to job satisfaction. e) Hygiene factors include working conditions, interpersonal relations, organizational policies, and salary.

e) Hygiene factors include working conditions, interpersonal relations, organizational policies, and salary.

Which of the following statements about goal setting is INCORRECT? a) Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are no goals or vague or very general ones. b) Task feedback, or knowledge of results, is likely to motivate people toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals. c) Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish them. d) Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are accepted and there is commitment to them. e) Less difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are more difficult goals.

e) Less difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are more difficult goals.

Content theories include all of the following theories EXCEPT: a) Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. b) Alderfer's ERG theory. c) McClelland's acquired needs theory. d) Herzberg's two-factor theory. e) Locke and Latham's goal setting theory.

e) Locke and Latham's goal setting theory.

Which of the following statements does NOT accurately describe motivator factors in the two-factor theory? a) Motivator factors are related to job content. b) Motivator factors include a sense of achievement, recognition, and responsibility. c) Motivator factors involve what people actually do in their jobs. d) The presence of motivator factors in a job contributes to a person's job performance. e) The absence of motivator factors causes job dissatisfaction.

e) The absence of motivator factors causes job dissatisfaction.

Management by objectives is criticized for placing too much emphasis on all of the following EXECPT: a) goal-oriented rewards. b) goal-oriented punishments. c) top-down goals. d) goals that are easily stated in objective terms. e) group instead of individual goals.

e) group instead of individual goals.

All of the following statements describe hygiene factors in the two-factor theory EXCEPT: a) hygiene factors are associated with the job context or work setting. b) hygiene factors are sources of job dissatisfaction. c) hygiene factors involve the work setting or the environment in which people work. d) improving hygiene factors will prevent people from being dissatisfied. e) improving hygiene factors will make people satisfied with their work.

e) improving hygiene factors will make people satisfied with their work.

A person can resolve perceived negative inequity by doing all of the following EXCEPT: a) reducing work inputs. b) changing the outcomes received. c) leaving the situation. d) psychologically distorting the comparisons. e) working longer hours.

e) working longer hours.

According to ERG, ____________ needs reflect a desire for continued personal development. a.) existence b.) esteem c.) relatedness d.) self-actualization e.) growth

e.) growth