Chapter 11: The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism

"Rain, Steam, and Speed--The Great Western Railway"

Painted by Joseph Turner, this illustrated the recently invented railway engine. In this scene the new technology is both part of the natural world and strong enough to dominate it.

Prussia

Reforms made in this country led to important changes in its society. Serfdom was abolished (even though vestiges of the system did survive). The military was reformed to increase the supply of soldiers and improve their quality, and inhumane military punishments were abolished, promotions were based on merit, and war colleges were developed. Even though Napoleon strictly limited the size of its army to 42,000, it evaded the limit by training a group each year and putting them into the reserves. By 1814, it had an army of 270,000. This was a result of its defeat at the Battle of Jena in 1806 against Napoleon.

Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881)

This British historian and social commentator attributed new, positive qualities to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). He disliked the Enlightenment's disparagement of religion and spiritual values and was drawn to German theories of history. In his "On Heroes and Hero-Worship", he represented the prophet as the embodiment of the hero as prophet.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)

This German was the most important philosopher of history in the Romantic period. He believed ideas developed in an evolutionary fashion that involves conflict. At any given time, a predominant set of ideas, which he termed the thesis, holds sway. Conflicting ideas, which Hegel termed the antithesis, challenge the thesis. As these patterns of thought clash, a synthesis emerges that eventually becomes the new thesis. Then the process begins all over again. Periods of world history receive their character from the patterns of thought that predominate during them. From this analysis, it was concluded that all periods of history have been of almost equal value because each was necessary to the achievements to those that came later.

Holy Alliance

This alliance was proposed by tsar Alexander I, whereby the monarchs promised to act together in accordance with Christian principles. Austria and Prussia signed, but Britain did not. This soon became a symbol of extreme political reaction.

Battle of the Nations (1813)

This battle ended in Napoleon's defeat against the European Coalition of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, with large amounts of economical aid from the British. In 1814, the allied armies marched into Paris. A few days later, Napoleon abdicated and went into exile on the island Elba.

Battle of Borodino (1812)

This battle occurred near Moscow and was the bloodiest battle of the Napoleonic era. Despite having lost less men, the battle was regarded as a defeat for Napoleon because the Russian army was not destroyed, and he'd won nothing substantial.

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)

This event led to the independence of Haiti. It was sparked by the policies of the French Revolution overflowing into its New World Empire. It demonstrated that slaves of African origins could lead a revolt against white masters and mulatto freeman. It terrified slaveholders throughout the Americas.

Consulate (1799-1804)

This in effect ended the revolution in France. It was the French government dominated by Napoleon.

the sublime

This is what Romantic artists' works often sought to portray this: subjects from nature that aroused strong emotions like fear, dread, and awe, and raised questions about whether and how much we control our lives. Romantics saw nature as a set of infinite forces that overwhelmed the smallness of humankind.

Sturm und Drang

meaning "storm and stress" in German. It was a movement in German romantic literature and philosophy that emphasized feeling and emotion.

Continental System

the blockade designed by Napoleon to paralyze Great Britain through the destruction of British commerce. The decrees of Berlin (November 21, 1806) and Milan (December 17, 1807) proclaimed a blockade: neutrals and French allies were not to trade with the British.

Emperor

In 1804, this is what Napoleon was declared as, instead of the First Consul of the Republic.

Rousseau

While he shared the reformist spirit of the Enlightenment, his conviction that society and material prosperity had corrupted human nature did profoundly influence Romantic writers. In his novel "Émile", he stressed the difference between child and adult and urged that children be raised with maximum individual freedom. Each child should be allowed to learn by trial and error what reality is and how best to deal with it. Parents and teachers should stay out of the way as much as possible. To Romantic writes, this concept of human development vindicated the rights of nature of those of artificial society.

"The Genius of Christianity" (1802)

Written by Viscount Francois René de Chateaubriand, this book is described as the "bible of Romanticism". In it, Chateaubriand argued that the essence of religion is passion

Germany

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Romantic movement had begun to take hold, especially in this country. One of its basic features was the emergence of nationalism. Its people began to urge resistance against Napoleon and felt that only a people united though language and culture could resist the French onslaught.

Mary Shelley (1797-1851)

Daughter of Mary Wollstonecraft, she wrote "Frankenstein: or, the Modern Prometheus", which is often considered the first science fiction novel. When she was revealed as the author of the story, contemporary critics complained that the gruesome subject of the story was not appropriate for a young female mind.

Napoleonic Code

Established by Napoleon in 1804, it safeguarded all forms of property and tried to secure French society against internal challenges. Workers' organizations remained forbidden, workers had fewer rights than their employers, fathers were granted extensive control over their children and husbands over their wives, and it was universal among all of France.

Friedrich Schlegel (1767-1845)

German Romantic writer who wrote "Lucinde", in which he attacked prejudices against women as capable of being little more than lovers and domestics. His novel reveals the ability of the Romantics to become involved in the social issues of their day.

Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)

He emerged as the leading statesman of Europe at the Congress of Vienna. His commitment to preventing international war by preventing domestic revolution enabled him to take the lead in a new system of cooperative conservatism that would become known as the Concert of Europe.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

He is believed to be the greatest German writer of modern times. His masterpiece was "Faust", a long dramatic poem. Part I tells the story of Faust, who makes a pact with the devil to exchange his soul for greater knowledge than other human beings possess. As the story progresses, he seduces a young woman named Gretchen, who dies and is received into heaven as Faust realizes he must continue living. In Part II, he dedicates what remains of his life to the improvement of mankind. Part of this writer's literary production fits into the Romantic mold, and part of it was a condemnation of Romantic excesses.

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)

He vigorously rejected the Enlightenment's mechanical explanation of nature. He saw human beings and societies as developing organically. He revived German folk culture by urging the collection and preservation of distinctive German songs and sayings. His most important followers were the Grimm brothers. Believing each language and culture were the unique expression of a people.

Orders of the Council

A counter-blockade by Britain against the Continental System which forbid British subjects, allies, or even neutral countries from trading with France.

categorical imperative

According to Immanuel Kant, all humans possess this innate sense of moral duty or awareness. This term refers to an inner command to act in every situation as one would have all other people act in the same situation.

Methodism

An English religious movement begun by John Wesley that stressed inward, heartfelt religion and the possibility of attaining Christian perfection in this life. It originated in the middle of the eighteenth century as a revolt against deism and rationalism in the Church of England.

Confederation of the Rhine

In 1806, Napoleon organized this, and it included most the western German princes. Their withdrawal from the Holy Roman Empire led the Habsburg Francis II to dissolve that ancient political body and henceforth call himself Emperor Francis I of Austria.

Russia

In 1810, this country withdrew from the Continental System due to its discontent with Napoleon and his violations of the Treaty of Tilsit, and began to prepare for war. Napoleon was determined to end the military threat and amassed hundreds of thousands of troops, but this country, with only 160,000 troops retreated before they could battle. They followed a "scorched-earth" policy and destroyed all food and supplies as they retreated. The army of Napoleon could not live off the country. His failed invasion of this country caused him to lose half a million men.

The Hundred Days (March-June 1815)

In March 1815, Napoleon returned from Elba and soon regained power. The French army was still loyal to him and the French preferred him over the restored Bourbons. He promised a liberal constitution and a peaceful foreign policy, but the allies did not believe him and sent their armies to crush him. Fought mainly between France against Britain and Prussia, the Battle of Waterloo ended with Napoleon's defeat. He again abdicated and was exiled to St. Helena, where he died in 1821. This led to harsher peace settlements for France.

Battle of Trafalgar (1805)

In this battle, British admiral Lord Nelson destroyed the combined French and Spanish fleets off the Spanish coast. Nelson died in the battle, but the British lost no ships. It ended all French hope of invading Britain and ensured that Britain would be able to maintain its opposition to France for the duration of the war. Britain's dominance of the seas would not be seriously challenged until World War I.

Constitution of the Year VIII

Issued by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799 which established the rule of one man, the First Consul, Napoleon. It was written behind a screen of universal male suffrage that suggested democratic principles, a complex system of checks and balances that appealed to republican theory, and a Council of State that evoked memories of Louis XIV. Napoleon was the first modern political figure to use the rhetoric of revolution and nationalism, to back it with military force, and to combine these elements into a mighty weapon of imperial expansion in the service of his own power.

Berlin Decrees

Issued by Napoleon in 1806, it was a decree that forbid his allies from importing British goods.

The Organic Articles of 1802

Issued by the government without consulting the pope, it established the supremacy of state over church.

Toussaint L'Ouverture (1743-1803)

Leader of the Haitian Revolution. He imposed an authoritarian constitution on Haiti and made himself Governor-General for life, but preserved formal ties with France.

John Constable (1776-1837)

Like many other early Romantic artists, he was a political conservative. In his painting "Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows", he portrayed a stable world in which neither political turmoil nor industrial development challenged the traditional dominance of the church and landed classes. He expected religious institutions to deter political radicalism. He and other Romantics also tended to idealize rural life because they believed it opposed the increasingly urban, industrializing, commercial society which was developing around them.

nationalism

Napoleon's advances in Europe released this powerful force. He was also able to use this to conscript citizen soldiers in unprecedented numbers, thanks to their loyalty to him and the nation.

Romanticism

This movement emerged during the French Revolution and the conquests of Napoleon. It was a reaction against much of the thought of the Enlightenment and the social transformation of the Industrial Revolution. It represented an emphasis on the artist over their work, on the subjective experience and potential heroism of the individual, and the inability to understand the world through reason. Many writers and artists urged a revival of Christianity. Unlike the philosophes of the Enlightenment, these artists and writers liked the art, literature, and architecture of medieval times.

Spain

This nation had been allied to France since 1796. In 1807, when a French army came into the Iberian Peninsula to force Portugal to abandon its treaty with Britain, the army stayed in this country to protect lines of supply and communication. He then used a revolt that broke out in the country to depose the Bourbons and place his brother Joseph on the throne. The peasants rebelled and Napoleon faced guerrilla warfare. The British then began supporting the insurgents, thus beginning a long peninsular campaign that would drain French strength from elsewhere in Europe and hasten Napoleon's eventual defeat.

Treaty of Chaumont (1814)

This treaty provided for the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne and the contraction of France to its frontiers of 1792. Even more importantly, Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia agreed to form a Quadruple Alliance for 20 years to preserve whatever settlement they agreed on.

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

This was a meeting of Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, and other lesser powers. It was determined to prevent any single nation from dominating Europe. The states around France's borders were strengthened to serve as barriers to France should renew expansion. The congress established the rule of legitimate monarchs and rejected any hint of the republican and democratic policies which flowed from the French Revolution. France also became part of the deliberations.

Second Coalition (1799)

This was formed by Russia, Austria, the Ottomans and Great Britain. It was a result of the French invasion of Egypt, which Napoleon hoped would threaten the British Empire, but failed. It led to the War of the Second Coalition.

Third Coalition

This was formed in 1805 and consisted of Russia, Austria, and Great Britain against France.

Quadruple Alliance

This was renewed in November 1815 by Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia. It was as much a coalition for maintaining peace as for pursuing victory over France

Treaty of Tilsit (1807)

This was signed between Tsar Alexander I and Napoleon Bonaparte. It confirmed France's gains. Prussia lost half of its territory. Prussia openly and Russia secretly became allies of Napoleon.

"Description of Egypt" (1809-1828)

This was written by Napoleon's scholars when they went with him on his Egyptian expedition in 1798. For his invasion to succeed, he believed he must make it clear he had no intention of destroying Islam but rather sought to liberate Egypt from the military clique that governed the country in the name of the Ottoman Empire. So, he took scholars of Arabic and Islamic culture whom he urged to converse with the most educated people they could meet. Such cultural sensitivity and the serious efforts of the French scholars to learn Arabic and study the Qur'an impressed Egyptian scholars.