Chapter 12: Emotions, Stress, and Health

12-2: To experience emotions, must we consciously interpret and label them?

The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory holds that our emotions have two ingredients, physical arousal and a cognitive label, and the cognitive labels we put on our states of arousal are an essential ingredient of emotion. Lazarus agreed that many important emotions arise from our interpretations or inferences. Zajonc and LeDoux, however, believe that some simple emotional responses occur instantly, not only outside our conscious awareness, but before any cognitive processing occurs. This interplay between emotion and cognition illustrates our dual-track mind.

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion.

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.

catharsis

emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. (physiological responses--> experienced emotion)

lymphocytes

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

12-11: What are the causes and consequences of happiness?

A good mood brightens people's perceptions of the world and makes them more willing to help others (the feel-good, do-good phenomenon). The moods triggered by good or bad events seldom last beyond that day. Even significant good events, such as sudden wealth, seldom increase happiness for long. Happiness is relative to our own experiences (the adaptation-level phenomenon) and to others' success (the relative deprivation principle). Some individuals seem genetically predisposed to be happier than others. Cultures, which vary in the traits they value and the behaviors they expect and reward, also influence personal levels of happiness.

12-17: How effective is aerobic exercise as a way to manage stress and improve well-being?

Aerobic exercise is sustained, oxygen-consuming activity that increases heart and lung fitness. It increases arousal, leads to muscle relaxation and sounder sleep, triggers production of neurotransmitters, and enhances self-image. It can relieve depression and, in later life, is associated with better cognitive functioning and longer life.

12-10: What are the causes and consequences of anger?

Anger is most often evoked by misdeeds that we interpret as willful, unjustified, and avoidable. But smaller frustrations and blameless annoyances can also trigger anger. Emotional catharsis may be temporarily calming, but in the long run it does not reduce anger. Rehearsing anger can make us more angry. Controlled assertions of feelings may resolve conflicts, and forgiveness may rid us of angry feelings.

12-20: What is complementary and alternative medicine, and how is it best assessed through scientific research?

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) comprises unproven health care treatments intended to serve as supplements or alternatives to conventional medicine; they are not widely taught in medical schools, used in hospitals, or reimbursed by insurance companies. To isolate real CAM treatment effects from placebo effects and spontaneous recovery influences, researchers experiment, randomly assigning people to experimental and control conditions.

12-14: Why are some of us more prone than others to coronary heart disease?

Coronary heart disease, North America's number one cause of death, has been linked with the reactive, anger-prone Type A personality. Compared with relaxed, easygoing Type B personalities, Type A people secrete more of the hormones that accelerate the buildup of plaque on the heart's artery walls. Chronic stress also contributes to persistent inflammation, which heightens the risk of clogged arteries and depression.

12-1: How do arousal and expressive behaviors interact in emotion?

Emotions are psychological responses of the whole organism involving an interplay among physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience. Theories of emotion generally address two major questions: (1) Does physiological arousal come before or after emotional feelings, and (2) how do cognition and feeling interact? The James-Lange theory maintains that emotional feelings follow our body's response to emotion-inducing stimuli. The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that our body responds to emotion at the same time that we experience the emotion (one does not cause the other).

12-4: Do different emotions activate different physiological and brain-pattern responses?

Emotions may be similarly arousing, but some subtle physiological responses, such as facial muscle movements, distinguish them. More meaningful differences have been found in activity in the brain's pathways and cortical areas and in hormone secretion associated with different emotions.

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.

12-9: What are some basic emotions, and what two dimensions help differentiate them?

Izard's 10 basic emotions are joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. The two dimensions of emotion are positive-versus-negative valence, and low-versus-high arousal.

12-6: How do we communicate nonverbally? How do the genders differ in this capacity?

Much of our communication is through body movements, facial expressions, and voice tones. Even seconds-long filmed slices of behavior can reveal feelings. Women tend to read emotional cues more easily and to be more empathic.

12-5: How effective are polygraphs in using body states to detect lies?

Polygraphs, which measure several physiological indicators of emotion, are not accurate enough to justify widespread use in business and law enforcement. The use of guilty knowledge questions and new forms of technology may produce better indications of lying.

12-15: In what ways do people cope with stress, and how does a perceived lack of control affect health?

Problem-focused coping attempts to change the stressor or the way we interact with it. Emotion-focused coping aims to avoid or ignore stressors and attend to emotional needs related to stress reactions. A perceived loss of control provokes an outpouring of hormones that put people's health at risk.

12-13: How does stress make us more vulnerable to disease?

Psychoneuroimmunologists study mind-body interactions, including stress-related physical illnesses, such as hypertension and some headaches. Stress diverts energy from the immune system, inhibiting the activities of its B and T lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells. Stress does not cause diseases such as AIDS and cancer, but by altering our immune functioning it may make us more vulnerable to them and influence their progression.

12-18: In what ways might relaxation and meditation influence stress and health?

Relaxation and meditation have been shown to reduce stress by relaxing muscles, lowering blood pressure, improving immune functioning, and lessening anxiety and depression.

12-8: Do our facial expressions influence our feelings?

Research on the facial feedback effect shows that our facial expressions can trigger emotional feelings and signal the body to respond accordingly. We also mimic others' expressions, which helps us empathize.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

12-12: What events provoke stress responses, and how do we respond and adapt to stress?

Stress is the process by which we appraise and respond to stressors (catastrophic events, significant live changes, and daily hassles) that challenge or threaten us. Walter Cannon viewed the stress response as a "fight-or-flight" system. Later researchers identified an additional stress-response system in which the adrenal glands secrete glucocorticoid stress hormones. Hans Selye proposed a general three-stage (alarm-resistance-exhaustion) general adaptation syndrome (GAS). Prolonged stress can damage neurons, hastening cell death. Facing stress, women may have a tend-and-befriend response; men may withdraw socially, turn to alcohol, or become aggressive.

12-16: What are the links among basic outlook on life, social support, stress, and health?

Studies of people with an optimistic outlook show that their blood pressure does not increase as sharply in response to stress, their recovery from heart bypass surgery is faster, and their life expectancy is longer, compared with their pessimistic counterparts. Social support promotes health by calming us, reducing blood pressure and stress hormones, and by fostering stronger immune functioning.

12-3: What is the link between emotional arousal and the autonomic nervous system? How does arousal affect performance?

The arousal component of emotion is regulated by the autonomic nervous system's sympathetic (arousing) and parasympathetic (calming) divisions. Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks.

12-19: What is the faith factor, and what are some possible explanations for this link?

The faith factor is the finding that religiously active people tend to live longer than those who are not religiously active. Possible explanations may include the effect of intervening variables, such as the healthy behaviors, social support, or positive emotions often found among people who regularly attend religious services.

12-7: Are nonverbal expressions of emotion universally understood?

The meaning of gestures varies with culture, but facial expressions, such as those of happiness and fear, are common the world over. Cultures also differ in the amount of emotion they express.

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)

as yet unproven health care treatments intended to supplement (complement) or serve as alternatives to conventional medicine, and which typically are not widely taught in medical schools, used in hospitals, or reimbursed by insurance companies. When research shows a therapy to be safe and effective, it usually then becomes part of accepted medical practice.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction.

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

psychophysiological illness

literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety.

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

tend and befriend

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).