Chapter 13

Based on the success of the Pollution Potential Index in China, it is implemented in parts of Africa to study air pollution and climate change. Which of the following will be needed to calculate the PPI?

Air temperature gradient anomalies and surface wind speeds.

You enjoy travelling. Where are you likely to be exposed to the highest concentration of PM 2.5?

India

In which layer of the atmosphere is the ozone layer found?

Stratosphere The highest concentration of the ozone layer lies about 20 km above Earth's surface. It screens out all of the ultraviolet C and most of the skin-damaging and mutagenic ultraviolet B.

The most obvious cause of industrial smog is ________.

burning fossil fuels

Which of the following chemicals is NOT a VOC (volatile organic compound)?

carbon monoxide A VOC (volatile organic compound) contains carbon and hydrogen. ex) evaporated gasoline, terpenes from plants, and cleaning solvents

Which of the following describes the greatest health risk posed by air pollution? Air pollutants __________.

damage blood vessels in human lungs Air pollutants can cause lasting damage to the delicate tissues in lungs, just as smoke from tobacco does to the lungs of those who smoke.

Which of the following has contributed to longer life spans in the United States?

decreased air pollution improved health care improved diet All of the listed responses are correct. Many factors affect life expectancy.

In general, China's air pollution __________.

decreases rainfall in California Small pollution particles collect water but do not become heavy enough to fall as rain.

If all of the stratospheric ozone suddenly disappeared, ________.

most life on Earth would cease to exist because of the amount of UV radiation penetrating the atmosphere

In developed countries, the two most deadly sources of indoor pollution are ________.

radon and cigarette smoke

A(n) ________ is a device designed to remove airborne pollutants from smokestack emissions.

scrubber

Point sources of air pollution are __________.

specific spots--such as a factory's smokestacks--where large quantities of pollution are discharged The exact location of the point pollution release is known.

What are the effects of carbon monoxide?

suffocation in mammals Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin irreversibly and prevents oxygen uptake by mammals.

The primary causes of acid deposition are ________.

sulfur and nitrogen oxides

Use the figure above to answer the following question. In the troposphere ________.

temperature decreases nearly linearly with altitude

Occasionally, a layer of cool air forms under a layer of warmer air in the troposphere. This change from the normal temperature profile in the troposphere is called a ________.

temperature or thermal inversion

Which piece of legislation set strict standards for air quality and pollution control in the United States?

the Clean Air Act This law set strict standards for air quality, imposed limits on emissions, and provided money for research.

Which of the following results in increased levels of pollution caused by automobile exhaust?

the construction of new highways This is yet another problem that Mexico City encountered with regard to air pollution from automobiles. More highways leads to more automobiles on the road, creating more air pollution.

Snow and ice accumulations in California's mountains are carefully monitored because __________.

they contribute to the main water source for most of the residents of the state California's recent drought has been worsened by limited snow and ice accumulations in the mountains.

What was the percent change from 1970 to 2006 for vehicle miles traveled?

+175% Vehicle miles traveled increased by 175% from 1970 to 2006.

Part B When it comes to air pollution, one of the biggest regulatory challenges is that there are many different sources to blame for various types of pollutants. Here are the predominant sources for the six criteria air pollutants in the United States: -Carbon monoxide (CO) → Formed from the combustion of carbon-based fuel. Sources include primarily human-caused emissions, such as those from vehicles, but also natural emissions, such as wild fires and volcanoes. -Sulfur dioxide (SO2) → Formed from fossil fuel combustion and natural sources. Sources include industry, volcanoes, and dust. -Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) → Formed from the reaction of nitrogen in fuel or air with oxygen at high temperatures (usually during fuel combustion). Sources include vehicles and industry. -Ground level ozone → Formed from reactions between NOx and VOCs in the presence of sunlight. Sources include vehicles, manufacturing, and industry. -Particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10) → Tiny airborne particles or droplets categorized by diameter (<2.5 or <10 nanometers). Sources include fuel combustion, wild fires, and dust storms. This information was sourced from the US EPA. Imagine that you are a member of an environmental advocacy group that encourages federal lawmakers to maintain strict national standards in clean air regulation. You are meeting with a congresswoman to discuss the CAA and you want to point out that, although the CAA has been a successful piece of legislation, it is important to maintain its achievements through continuing to enforce regulation and by identifying strategies to further improve air quality. Based on information in the graph in Part A and what you know about the sources of various pollutants, which of the following recommendations might you offer to the congresswoman?

-Efforts to achieve reductions in the concentrations of air pollutants such as CO, PM2.5, and PM10, should include strategies to prevent and control wildfires. -Future regulations should target reductions of ground level ozone with strategies that might include subsidizing public transportation and limiting the use of vehicles in dense urban areas during summer months. -Although SO2 concentration dropped significantly relative to national standards following the CAA, maintaining or furthering this reduction requires continued enforcement of regulations on fossil fuel combustion by industries and power plants. As nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is formed from the reaction of nitrogen in fuel or air with oxygen at high temperatures, efforts to reduce this pollutant by targeting natural events, such as volcanic eruptions and dust storms, would be ineffective.

If the U.S. population in 1970 was approximately 200 million people, what was the approximate population by 2006?

300 million people Population increased by 50%, or 100 million people, for a total population of 300 million people in 2006.

Energy consumption and aggregate emissions have also changed over time. Whereas the ratio of energy consumption to emissions was 1:1 in 1970, by 2006 the ratio was _________.

3:1 Energy use went from 1 to 1.5 (a 50% increase), while emissions went from 1 to 0.5 (a 50% decrease), for an overall ratio of 3:1.

The Chinese winter monsoon continues to push east. What can people in Korea and Japan expect?

A cold winter.

In an effort to further reduce emissions, a government panel is considering several policy options. For the trends on the graph, which of the following policies could have the biggest long-term impact on lowering emissions?

A mandated switch to electric cars with a solar and wind-powered electrical grid to "fuel" the cars Although the wind- and solar-powered grid does not exist yet, if it did, cars that ran on wind and solar-generated electricity would be virtually emission-free.

Which of the following is likely to have the highest concentration of PM 2.5 in China?

A steel manufacturing province.

A haze hangs over the East China plains in winter. Which of the following will most likely disperse this haze?

An extended blast of cold air.

Based strictly on increases in air pollution over the past few decades, where would we expect to see the greatest decrease in life spans? We would expect to see a decrease in life span in __________.

Beijing, China In countries such as China, the failure to restrict air pollution is expected to decrease longevity by at least two years.

Over the time period shown on the graph, both population and vehicle miles traveled have changed. Describe the relationship between the two factors.

By 2006, people were driving about twice as many miles per person as in 1970. Vehicle miles traveled increased by 175% reaching the value of 275% of what it was in 1970, whereas population increased by 50% and reached 150% of its value in 1970, hence, the average miles traveled per one person approximately doubled (275% / 150% ≈ 2).

What process depends on the cyclical, vertical movement of air currents: sinking cold, dense and rising warm, less dense air masses?

Convective circulation Air near Earth's surface tends to be warmer and moister than air at higher altitudes. These differences set into motion the process of convective circulation.

Process of Science: Carbon Dioxide and the Growth of Forest Stands Part C- Experimental design: Making predictions McCarthy decided to use the 2 x 2 design from Part B. The design of their experiment allowed them to test their hypothesis: Increased CO2 in the atmosphere will increase plant growth, and this increase will be greatest when there is an abundance of water. Using what you learned about the equation for photosynthesis and McCarthy's hypothesis, make predictions for the tree growth at each site. One has already been filled in for you.

CO2 Level Ambient . High . Moisture Dry . low growth . medium growth . Level Wet . medium growth . high growth . As you can see, the 2 x 2 design allows for multiple comparisons. For instance, we can see that McCarthy predicted that of the 4 treatment combinations, the one with ambient CO2 and a dry environment would have the lowest growth. Having more water or elevated CO2 would somewhat increase growth. With both elevated CO2 and a moist environment, growth would be highest. McCarthy and her team measured the growth of trees from 1996 to 2006. Their results were in line with these predictions. They supported their hypothesis.

Causes and Consequences: Indoor Air Pollution Indoor air pollution receives less attention than outdoor air pollution, yet it exerts severe health impacts on millions of people. Poverty worsens indoor air pollution in the developing world; high-technology products and chemicals contribute to it in the developed world; and certain lifestyle choices can affect all of us. Fortunately, many solutions are within reach to address the causes and lessen the consequences of this environmental health risk.

Causes: inefficient indoor cookstoves VOCs from paints, carpeting, and furniture Consequences: respiratory disease in developing countries people ill from sick-building syndrome lung cancer; 20,000 deaths per year in the United States Solutions: measurement of radon with a test kit; increase in ventilation purchase of low- or no-VOC paints, carpeting, and furniture conversion to more efficient clean-burning cook stoves

Which of the following pollutants has the longest residence time?

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Process of Science: Carbon Dioxide and the Growth of Forest Stands Part A- Experimental design: Developing a hypothesis It is important to remember that behind every hypothesis statement, there are assumptions, knowledge, and theories. When developing their hypothesis, McCarthy and her colleagues started by considering the chemical equation for photosynthesis.As photosynthesis occurs, the reactants and energy on the left are used, generating the products on the right. A plant with access to more reactants can grow more than a plant with access to fewer reactants. Suppose you are able to manipulate a plant's access to components in the photosynthesis equation. Drag each label to the appropriate bin to predict how that action will affect plant growth. For each increase or decrease, assume that every other component of the photosynthesis equation is unlimited.

Decrease plant growth: No effect on plant growth: Increase plant growth: IDK I GOT WRONG As you can see, the equation for photosynthesis has more than just carbon dioxide as an input. Photosynthesis also requires water and sunlight. In their experiment, McCarthy and her colleagues wanted to see how both water and CO2 would affect the growth of plants. Their hypothesis was as follows: Increased CO2 in the atmosphere will increase plant growth, and this increase will be greatest when there is an abundance of water. In other words, a plant would be better able to take advantage of extra CO2 if more water was available. You sorted 5 out of 8 items incorrectly. Review the photosynthesis equation. Keep in mind that CO2 is a reactant. If you add more CO2 (in the presence of plenty of water and sunlight) how should that affect the amount of photosynthesis taking place, and therefore plant growth?

Doing which of the following would reduce deaths from PM 2.5 in China by the most?

Eliminate the use of coal.

Which of the following conditions would most likely lead to extreme winter haze in the East China plains?

Heavy snow in Siberia and low levels of Arctic sea ice.

Taylor mentions the reduced demands on natural resources due to both reduced use of natural resources and the shift away from manufacturing economies to service economies. Imagine how Walke might respond to Taylor's statements in a debate.

I disagree; the shift to a service economy simply means that manufacturing has moved to other countries. Because air pollution does not respect borders, we will still need pollution regulation. Walke emphasizes the transient nature of air pollution as one of the reasons why regulation is important.

Explanation for... Part D- Experimental application: Global implications

If McCarthy's hypothesis is correct, you could hypothesize that plants in biomes with a higher moisture content would experience more growth in the presence of more CO2. You could design and conduct an experiment around this hypothesis, thus continuing the process of science.Don't leave this activity thinking that increasing CO2 and global climate change will be good for the world. It is true that plants in some regions may grow more, but plants on average will grow less across the world. Take a look at the figure below, which outlines the consequences of global climate change in terms of today's levels, levels that would be likely if sustainable practices were adopted, and levels expected if we keep the "business as usual" model.

Read the following scenario and answer the question(s) below. Thousands of young families moved "over the hills" and into the San Fernando Valley, a suburb of Los Angeles, after World War II. New neighborhoods were springing up, replacing orange groves and open space; roads and schools quickly sprang into existence, trying to keep pace with the rapid population growth. Ringed by beautiful mountains, the entire Los Angeles basin looked like a new, green, sun-filled paradise to the families seeking a fresh start. In the early 1950s, one of the common family chores in Los Angeles was to carry the trash out to the stone incinerator behind the garage where each family burned all of their dry trash. "Wet" garbage was collected and taken to a city dump, where it was burned by the city. Everyone throughout the city either used an incinerator or burned things in an open trash pile; there were over 400,000 backyard trash incinerators. On warm afternoons, eyes would sometimes sting and burn. People would stop, close their eyes, and let the cleansing tears refresh irritated eyes. They accepted this as a normal part of life in sunny California. One key to the puzzle of Los Angeles's smog is the fact that ________.

Los Angeles and its suburbs are all ringed by mountains

Which gas makes up 78% of the molecules in the atmosphere?

N2, nitrogen Nitrogen is the main gas in the atmosphere.

How does radon originate?

Natural decay of uranium Radon is a colorless, odorless, radioactive gas resulting from the natural decay of uranium in soil, rock, or water.

Jerry Taylor considers better air quality a luxury good. What evidence does he give for this reasoning?

Once per capita income reaches a certain level, concentrations of pollutants begin to decline as rapidly as they had increased. Taylor suggests that there is a correlation between income level and pollution declines.

Developing a technique to effectively and economically remove which of the following from the atmosphere would directly decrease haze in an area the most?

Particulate matter

What happens when acids from acid deposition hit topsoil?

Plants and soil organisms are harmed. Acids leach nutrients such as calcium and potassium ions from topsoil.

The authors of the two essays are quite opposite in their views, with Walke pro-regulation and Taylor anti-regulation. If you had to select a type of regulation that both authors would approve, which of the following might work?

Regulatory incentives that award subsidies to companies demonstrating technological changes in their processes that measurably reduce pollution Taylor seems more likely to support subsidies than penalties, and Walke would approve of the link to measurable pollution reduction.

Part A The Clean Air Act requires the EPA to set national standards for six common air pollutants (also known as "criteria air pollutants"). These pollutants are found all over the United States and are known to cause harm to human health and the environment. The criteria air pollutants are:Carbon monoxide (CO)Sulfur dioxide (SO2)Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)Ground level ozone (O3)Particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10) Based on the graph, which of the criteria air pollutants declined the most significantly relative to the most recent national standard between 1980 and 2015?

SO2 Of all criteria air pollutants, the largest decline has been observed in SO2 concentration, which went from exceeding its most recent national standard by 115% in 1980 to being 60% lower than that national standard in 2015.

Process of Science: Carbon Dioxide and the Growth of Forest Stands Part D - Experimental application: Global implications At the end of an experiment, a scientist's work is not over. Regardless of whether a scientist supports or rejects his or her hypothesis, good experiments lead to new hypotheses and new experiments. The global amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is rising, so there are potentially global implications for McCarthy's study. Take a look at the figure below. Given that McCarthy supported her hypothesis, can you make predictions for how rising levels of CO2 might influence plant growth in different biomes? Rank the biomes in terms of how much you expect plant growth to increase as a function of increased CO2 in the atmosphere.

Smallest increase in growth desert grassland temperate forest tropical rainforest Largest increase in growth If McCarthy's hypothesis is correct, you could hypothesize that plants in biomes with a higher moisture content would experience more growth in the presence of more CO2. You could design and conduct an experiment around this hypothesis, thus continuing the process of science.Don't leave this activity thinking that increasing CO2 and global climate change will be good for the world. It is true that plants in some regions may grow more, but plants on average will grow less across the world. Take a look at the figure below, which outlines the consequences of global climate change in terms of today's levels, levels that would be likely if sustainable practices were adopted, and levels expected if we keep the "business as usual" model.

Which of the following statements properly describes the cause of a temperature inversion or its effects?

Temperature inversions can trap air pollution in one place for many days. An inversion can work like a cap on the atmosphere. Air pollution is increased in concentration below the cap. Normally denser cold air falls to the surface, forcing the polluted air up and mixing it. A layer of warm air over a layer of colder air prevents mixing.

Why do pollution and smog often become trapped in Los Angeles and other similar urban areas?

The combination of temperature inversions (because of being surrounded by mountains) and extended periods of sunlight result in the buildup of smog in Los Angeles. Other cities and towns surrounded by mountains in warm regions, such as Mexico City, tend to have similar pollution problems.

John Walke supports government regulation as the most effective approach for reducing air pollution. Which of the following statements expresses one of his reasons?

There is little or no economic incentive for polluters to pay pollution costs. Walke supports regulation in part because without regulation, polluters have no economic reason to pay pollution costs.

Which of the following layers of the atmosphere is responsible for the weather that we experience on the surface of Earth?

Troposphere This bottom layer of the atmosphere provides us with the air we breathe and also drives the planet's weather.

Which of the following countries likely has the highest level of premature deaths due to PM 2.5?

Turkey

What would do the most to reduce indoor air pollution in the developing world?

Using solar energy to heat homes Millions of people in the developing world burn wood or animal dung to cook and heat homes, increasing the risk of premature deaths.

Both authors refer to voluntary actions and their effect on pollution control. Which of the following statements best describes one author's viewpoint?

Walke; Voluntary programs are unsuccessful. For example, in a voluntary EPA program, only one-fourth of the participants committed to reducing emissions. Walke used the voluntary EPA program as an example of why voluntary policies are not effective for pollution control.

Currently, issues related to which of the following cause the most premature deaths worldwide?

Water

What sorts of constituents do atmospheric pollutants (such as sulfates and nitrates) react with to initiate the process that results in acid deposition?

Water, oxygen, and oxidants These chemical constituents form compounds of low pH with atmospheric pollutants

Which of the following U.S. states experiences the lowest levels of acid rain?

Wyoming Precipitation remains most acidic in regions near and downwind from areas of heavy industry which is greatest along the east coast of the United States.

On average, it appears that over the past 25 years, improved air quality in the United States has resulted in __________ in the lifespan of the average individual.

an increase of about five months This finding shows the impact the environment has on human health.

Part C Looking at the graph, notice that the monitoring of particulate matter, PM2.5 and PM10, began later than the other criteria air pollutants. In particular, monitoring of PM2.5 did not start until 1997, when the EPA established specific standards for particles with a diameter less than 2.5 nanometers. Why does size matter? The smaller the size, the easier it is for airborne particles to reach deep within the lungs and pass through tissue, causing damage to the lungs, heart, and brain. For this reason, it is especially important to regulate PM2.5 concentrations according to strict national standards. Take a moment to look at the graph. Analyze how concentrations of each type of PM changed over time relative to the most recent national standards. By how much did the reduction of PM10 concentration exceed the reduction of PM2.5 concentration by 2015?

approximately 30% In 2015, the reduction of PM10 concentration exceeded the reduction of PM2.5 concentration relative to the most recent national standards by approximately 30%. To calculate this, subtract 30% (PM2.5 concentration in 2015) from 60% (PM10 concentration in 2015).

Carbon monoxide ________.

blocks oxygen transport in human blood

What is largely responsible for the ozone hole?

chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants (CFCs) CFCs react with ozone to break it down.

What drives long-term climate patterns, such as the Hadley Cells at the Equator, over large geographic scales?

convective air currents These air currents are largely driven by heat.

One of the problems that occur as a consequence of CFC pollution is ________.

increased rates of skin cancer in humans

What is one of the greatest sources of pollution in Mexico City that has persisted even after the government successfully lowered overall pollutant levels?

emissions from automobile exhaust Although all of Mexico City's levels of airborne pollution have declined in recent years, emissions from automobiles continue to be a problem. Transportation is vital to the existence of modern cities, so this is a problem that will not go away anytime soon. Requiring emissions testing and changing public vehicles over to cleaner burning engines are two ways in which to combat this problem.

In 1970, ________ was/were the source of most of the airborne lead emissions in the United States.

gasoline

In the stratosphere, ________.

increases of temperature and ozone levels are strongly correlated

How do dust particles from the vast deserts in China affect weather patterns? The dust __________.

increases the chances of rainfall in California The chemistry and size of dust particles makes them attract water and increase the chances of rainfall.

The Coriolis effect ________.

is caused by Earth's rotation

How does China's air pollution get to the United States? China's air pollution __________.

is moved by the jet stream to the west coast of the United States It takes about five days for air from China to reach the United States.

Tropospheric ozone ________.

is produced through the interaction of heat and UV light, with nitrogen oxides and carbon-containing compounds

The Acid Rain Program established under the Clean Air Act of 1990 has been successful in reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide and ________.

nitrogen oxides

Air near Earth's surface tends to be ________.

warmer and wetter; then it rises, expanding and cooling

The huge dust storms that took place in the United States in the 1930s ________.

were the result of poor farming techniques