chapter 13 env bio

Poaching kills ___ of African elephants population annually, 1 killed every 14 minutes

8%

Numbers of elephants have been cut by _____ and falling

A third

tetranucleotide repeats:

TATCTATCTATC....

poaching:

illegal hunting and killing for elephant ivory

overexploitation statistics

- 85% of oyster reefs have disappeared since the late 1800's - in 1950's Northern California sardine fishery crashed, local population depleted 95-98% - lost 10-20 million after crash - took 4 decades to recover (still comparatively low)

CITES (conservation on international trade in endangered species)

- CITES treaty regulates international trade in endangered species and aids in conservation efforts - auctioned off african nations ivory stock piles legally - intended to raise money for conservation - increased market for ivory - - since 1990 ivory trade banned by CITES - confiscated elephant tusks now crushed

DNA= DeoxyriboNucleic Acid

- the genetic hereditary material of all cells - huge double stranded macromolecule that stores information - polymer of NUCLEOTIDES - called NUCLEIC ACIDS or BASES

conservation genetics:

- uses species genetic information to inform conservation efforts

How can the ecosystem based approach utilize a focus on particular species?

-keystone species - indicator species - umbrella species:

US national laws:

-marine mammals protection act (1972) - endangered species act (1973)

estimated populations:

1979- 1,130,00 1989- 600,000 2013- 405,000 forest elephants- 100,000 savannah elephants- 305,000

DNA fingerprinting

- DNA sequence: relative order of base pairs - chemical structure of DNA is the same. A T C G = nucleotides - the main difference between organisms is the order of the nucleotides - DNA sequence ORDER is important - mainly looking at small sequences of repeating nucleotides - blood was previously used for blood typing, now used as a source of DNA

How has conservation genetics helped ensure legal protection for elephants?

- Zambia and Tanzania again petitioned CITES for permission to sell their stockpiled ivory opponents to this request argued that such allowances would only bolster the illegal trade - DNA analysis, which showed that more than 60% of the illegal ivory seized that year did indeed come from Tanzania and Zambia

Conservation genetics can determine.....

- amount of genetic diversity within a population - whether two populations are distinct species or the same species - kinship between separate groups (one extended population? or distinct populations that dont interbreed?) - from which region of a country a contraband animal product is from - whether a given population is a part of an endangered species

Where are elephants at greatest risk?

- conservation biologists mapped the ivory trade using DNA - major source of poaching was occurring in places such as Tanzania, Gabon - poaching was thought to be essentially eradicated here, but these are actually the poaching hotspots

five big ways to conserve biodiversity:

- ecotourism - putting a value on ecosystem services - debt for nature swaps - non profit organizations - land/trust conservation easements

How are elephants keystone species?

- elephants are integral part of the ecosystem as a whole - elephants disperse seeds and mobilize large amounts of nutrients: each dung pile contains thousands of individual seeds from more than a dozen different plants - elephants change the physical structure of the forest: elephants trample vegetation, fell trees, and open up the forest canopy facilitating plant growth

3. Landscape approach

- examines several indicator species in what is known as a landscape species suit, - this group uses all the vital areas in the ecosystem - if we monitor and protect these species collectively, we will simultaneously protect the entire ecosystem in which they reside.

Characteristics of invasive species:

- fast growth - dispersal ability - phenotypic - plasticity - rapid - reproduction - generalist - lifestyle - tolerance

external factors that threaten forest elephants

- have a limited habitat range restricted to the rainforests of west and central africa - require large territory - have a low reproductive rate k- selected species

Illegal endangered species product trade:

- ivory $564 a kg in 2006, $2100 in 2015 - ivory for carvings and jewelery - traditional medicine - elephant eye, rhino horn, bear gal bladders, hornbill beaks, tiger skins, tiger bone

elephants

- largest land animal on earth - social - maintain strong familial bonds - when apart, they communicate in sounds too low for the human to hear - incisor teeth turn into ivory tusks - keystone species

Protecting habitat to protect species

- national parks - wildlife refuges and wilderness areas - nature preserves

The evidence shows that protected areas help conserve biodiversity but has limits:

- only 13% of land on earth has some protected status - only 1.6% of the oceans are protected - species extinction rates are actually increasing as pressure outside of protected areas increase

External factors that threaten forest elephants

- poaching to feed a growing market for elephant ivory - habitat fragmentation due to road building - roads = more access to herds - poaching in forest goes undetected

Convention on international trade in endangered species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) CITES

- prohibits trade and commerce of threated and endangered species, is international - by 1998, signed by 144 countries regulates the sale and trade of endangered or threatened species or products (175 signatory nations)

endangered species act: 1973

- protection for endangered and threatened plant and animals species and their habitats mandates protection for "listed" species. Listing is a cumbersome process, and many species dont make it to the list due to budgetary concerns rather than needs

habitat destruction statistics

- rain forests (160,000 km^2 per year; 1% of total) - 20% if worlds coral reefs now gone - 50% of US total wetland is lost in last 200 yrs

Conservation tools: key concept

- scientists can use conservation genetics to help identify endangered populations and to track illegal sale or trade of endangered species

Simple tandem repeats: STR's or microstatellites

- segments of DNA containing tandem copies of di, tri, or tetranucleotide repeat units

3 conservation approaches:

- single species approach - ecosystem approach - landscape approach

African elephant numbers plummet 30 percent:

- the Great Elephant Census surveyed sites throughout the continent in 2014 and 2015 - explore a country by country look at the population status of the african savanna elephant - during this period, Chad had the STEEPEST decline, followed by cameroon, the democratic republican of the congo, and Tanzania - some countries had stable populations and other had populations increases but not enough to make up for he major losses in other countries

International treaties:

-Convention on international trade in endangered species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) -convention on biological diversity: 1992

limits in single species approach:

-Typically, only cute animals are recipients of this approach -it does not take the entire ecosystem into account

International union for conservation of nature (IUCN)

-red list of threatened species in 1963 - to identify the species (those immediate risk of extinction) -added to list when at risk for endangerment - removed when status improves - roughly one-third of all plants and animals are considered threatened today - number of species counted in the red list threatened species be underestimated in every category

Information needed to preserve biodiversity:

-what are the key requirements of its resident species? -are those requirements being met? - If not, why not, and what other species are being threatened as a result?

5 main global threats:

1. Habitat destruction/fragmentation 2. Pollution 3. Invasive species 4. Climate changes 5. Over exploitation

More than _______________ African elephants were illegally poached from 2010 through 2012

100,000

Elephants birthday rate is at ____ and falling

5%

NUCLEOTIDES:

A, T, G, C

trinucleotide repeats:

ACGACGACG....

Elephants are grouped into what two main regions?

African and Asian

There are 5 main global threats to global biodiversity threats-

All tied to an expanding human population and increasing levels of affluence

nature preserves:

Areas that are closed to hunting and fishing and whose main goal is to protect wildlife

Wildlife refuges and wilderness areas:

Areas that are generally open to visitors but are not commercially developed ( they have no restaurents, hotels)

techniques used in single species approach:

Captive breeding (ex. species survival plans) reintroducing the species into the wild. - many zoos participate in species survival plans in which members of a particular endangered species are transferred from zoo to zoo to mate with other members of that species. - this technique increases the genetic diversity of the next generation of the species, which makes them more suited to whether any disturbances in their natural habitats upon release.

dinucleotide repeats:

GTGTGTG....

Largest restoration project today is?

Guanacaste National Park in Costa Rica - area cleared of invasive species, trees planted and pioneer species allowed to move in and colonize

Tipping point

Killing of elephants by illegal poaching is happening faster than they are being born

Habitat destruction

Process by which natural habitats (both terrestrial, freshwater and sea water) are rendered functionally unable to support the species present - over harvest resources - area development reclaim area for agriculture or urban use - lowers carry capacity of organisms associated with habitat

African elephant: forest

Smaller, more rounded ears, and thinner straighter tusks, location is limited to the forested areas of W and central Africa - keystone species

Indicator species:

Those that are particularly vulnerable to ecosystem perturbations whose health can be used to keep track of an ecosystem's health

umbrella species:

Those that require large tracts of relatively undisturbed habitat to maintain viable populations so saving this habitat also benefits other species

At these rates, elephants...

Will be wiped out and become extinct

poaching and habitat destruction/fragmentation has caused?

a huge decrease in African elephant population and range

Invasive species:

a plant or animal that is not native to a specific location which causes damage to the local environment - this therm most often applies to species that are introduced - most invasions are associated with human activity e.g. ballast tanks: used by cargo ships for ballast but can transport much marine life between port cities

National parks:

areas set aside primarily for human recreation

valuing ecosystem sources:

assessing the monetary value of an intact ecosystem to inform how best to use an area - ex. in thailand, the value that a mangrove swamp provides in terms of local harvestable goods and value to offshore fisheries is about six times more than the economic value of shrimp farms that displace the mangroves

Sources of DNA?

blood, feces, ivory, hair, skin cells, saliva, semen, or other tissue

elephant, chimpanzee, and gorilla-

chosen to be the landscape suite for the conservation of the forests of northeastern congo - prefer slightly open forests with a wide variety of understory plants - elephants need the food, water, and minerals found near watering holes and wetlands - chimps prefer older, closed canopy stands with many nature fruiting trees - ALL three species avoid roads or rivers with heavy human use

Climate change:

comparatively rapid changes in climate conditions threaten species that cannot adapt or relocate to more suitable habitats - specialist species are particularly threatened - sea species are particularly threatened - sea ice has decreased by 34% in last decade - drop in seal and polar bears

though most species have yet to be assessed, those that have been are designated a _______________ _____________ ranging from least concerned to extinct

conservation designation

Consumer choices:

consumers can influence actions taken by businesses ad industries by purchasing products obtained in a way that does not harm species or better yet that helps conservation efforts. They can also vote with their dollars by choosing not to buy products whose acquisition harms biodiversity. - ex. avoid purchasing exotic pets

extinction debt:

decline and eventual extinction of a population as a result of changes that occurred in the past. (almost always habitat destruction) - 82% loss of song birds; pollinators

3 indicator species-

elephant, chimpanzee, and gorillas - collectively represent all of the species in this ecosystem - if elephants, chimps, and gorillas missing you can assume other species missing - indicate the lack of a resource

2. ecosystem approach:

entire ecosystems focus, with the goal being to preserve all the species and their their interactions - requires identifying ecosystems that are at risk and taking steps to rehabilitate them - focus on biodiversity hotspots ( regions that have lost at least 70 percent of their original

ecosystem conservation programs:

focus on protecting the habitat within the ecosystem, which helps protect all the species that live there. - also, uses measures such as species richness and evenness to guide conservation efforts

1. single species approach:

focuses on well known charismatic species such as pandas, tigers, and elephants. those that get attention and funds from the public. - focus is on specific threats to these individual species. example- gray wolves - by helping high profile species, we also may help others who share their habitat - field work by conservation groups work in the field and monitor species and to protect or restore habitat. Work with locals.

African elephant has two separate species, what are they?

forest, and savannah

CR- critically endangered

given to a species under the most serious threat

Pollution:

introduction of contaminants into the natural environment - can be chemical substances, noise, heat, or even light - heavy pesticides brought Irrawaddy dolphin brink of extinction, considered critically endangered, now only found in 3 rivers throughout SE Asia

Why is Biodiversity important in a population?

it allows the population to be more resistant to disruptions

Land trusts and conservation easements:

land trusts are nonprofit organizations set up to protect private, non profit land under their care. Conservation easements represent a legal agreement between a landowner and land trust or government that perminately limits land development and restricts use of that land to help preserve the conservation of the land ex. using money from public donations, the nonprofit organization Nature Conservancy has purchased about 6 million hectares (15 million acres) in the US, permanently protecting that land from future development

African elephant: savannah

larger, live in savannah habitats of E and S Africa

ecotourism:

low - impact travel to natural areas that contributes to the protection of the environment and respects the local people. - ex. community, region or nation may find that tourists who come see intact ecosystems bring in more money than would be gained by harvesting resources

Legal protection for threatened species includes:

national laws and international treaties as well as the establishment of protected areas

marine mammals protection act: 1972

protects all marine mammals (no killing, captures, without authorization)

Different individuals have different numbers of ________ on their chromosomes (even twins)

repeats

techniques used in ecosystem approach:

restoration: the repair and rehabilitation of ecosystems to close to their original state (reforestation) remediation- restoration that focuses on the clean up of pollution in a natural area

elephants exhibit ______________ behavior and ______________ their dead. As far as guarding the body from scavenger or cover the body with leaves or branches

ritualized; mourn

threatened species:

species that are at risk for extinction

convention on biological diversity: 1992

the 193 signatory nations agree to pursue goals of biodiversity conservation , sustainable use of biodiversity, and equitable sharing of genetic resources (crops and livestock)

What is the focus of conservative biology?

the focus is on protecting individual species and maintaining or restoring entire ecosystems

Overexploitation:

the over harvest of renewable resources to the point of diminishing returns - loss exceeds natural sustainability Not new phenomenon; the giant flightless birds called moa were overexploited to the point of extinction - cloaks worn by early hawaiian kings made of 70k + moa feathers - Giant Haast's Eagles that preyed on them also became extinct

debt for nature swamps:

the preservation of natural areas is funded by an agreement in which a nation forgives part of the debt of a developing nation, or a nonprofit agency pays off the debt, in return for the developing nation's pledge to put a percentage of that saving toward conservation projects - ex. so far more than $3 billion in debt has been forgiven in these programs with almost $1 billion funding conservation in debtor countries. Between 1991 and 1998 the US forgave 1.4 billion in debt for seven south american countries generating around $170 million in conservation funding

Conservative biology:

the science of preserving biodiversity.

keystone species:

those with major effects on ecological functions whose absence would affect many other species in ecological community

what is the overall goal of conservation efforts?

to increase and maintain earth's biodiversity

Elephants can recognize themselves in the mirror. True or False?

true, only handful of species can

Nonprofit organizations:

voluntary membership supports a large number of conservation oriented organizations which employ thousands of scientists, educators, legal advisors, and policy experts around the world ex. the WWF was the first wildlife focused organization, in 2011, 85% of its donations went to conservation projects

opportunities for citizen scientists:

volunteer work is an important part of keeping natural areas in good shape. There are a wide variety of educational research and wildlife/habitat management opportunities that allow individuals to contribute to conservation work - ex. The all Taxa biodiversity inventory of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Chesapeake Bay Program, aimed at restoring the bay, are examples of robust programs that allow citizens to pitch in and help in conservation efforts

Save the Elephants (STE)

works to secure a future for elephants and is identifying and supporting the most effective global partners to stop poaching , thwart traffickers and end demand for ivory