Chapter 13: Social Psychology
Socialization norms
social expectation that prescribes how we should behave
social norms
social expected roles for behavior
Social influence stems in part from
social norms
other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races -3-9 months old
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs desire to maximize our benefits
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
reward theory of attraction
the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events
evolution prepares people
to identify with a group
Studies of college and professional athletic events indicate that home teams win about 6 in 10 games of their home games
true
compared with people in western countries, those in china and Japan are more sensitive to situational influences on behavior
true
even reading about yawning increases peoples yawning
true
to reduce feelings of depression, we can alter our attributions and explain events in more positive terms
true
Researchers project that other things being equal, global warming of 4 degrees fahrenheit would induce tens of thousands of additional assaults and murders
ture
we are less likely to offer help to a stranger if other bystanders are present
ture
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
cognitive dissonance theory
we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent
Through cognitive dissonance
we often bring attitudes into line with our actions (festinger)
Deindividuation
when an individual seems to lose himself or herself in the group's identity what I do doesn't matter
Communication
when real life conflicts become intense, a third party mediator may facilitate much needed communication
people are most likely to help
when they notice an incident
overt prejudice has decreases
yet subtle prejudice lingers
Solomon Asch
Conducted famous conformity experiment that required subjects to match lines. people will conform to a groups judgement, even when it is clearly incorrect
cooperation
Cooperative contact, not conflict alone, reduces conflict
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them
Reciprocity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
prejudice definition
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members mixture of beliefs, negative emotions, and action
Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
own-age bias
better recognition memory for faces of one's own age group
we simplify the world
by forming category
more then 60 & of people
chose to obey orders, right up to the last switch, even though it supposedly meant harming the leader
Lean Festinger
cognitive dissonance theory
people are most conforming to social norms in
collective culture
Microaggressions
common, everyday verbal or behavioral indignities and slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, and negative messages about someone's race, gender, sexual orientation, or religion
social script
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
"Us" verve's "them"
develops in enemy perception
Prejudice is a negative attitude
discrimination is a negative behavior
automatic mimicry helps us to
empathize and feel what others are feeling.
passionate love seldom
endures
From research on liking and loving, it is clear that opposites do attract.
false
Individuals pull harder in a team tug-of-war than when they pull in a one-on-one tug-of-war
false
most people would refuse to obey an authority figure who told them to hurt an innocent person
false
the higher the morale and harmony of a social group, the more likely are its members to make a good decision
false
Attitudes
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
Norman Triplett conducted
first experiment
frustration-aggression principle
frustration creates anger, which can spark aggression
just-world phenomenon
good is reward, bad is punished
social inequalities
have often developed attitudes that justify status quo
The milligram shock study
how people follow authorities even if it goes against there morals
odds for being helped increase
if the person appears to deserve help or is a women
front-in-the-door technique
illustrates how great evil sometimes grows out of peoples compliance with lesser evils
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
informationl social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality provided by the group
self disclosure depend
intimacy
bystander effect occurs when there
is a diffusion of responsibility
social contagion helps explain why
just hearing someone reading a neutral text in either a happy or sad sounding voice creates mood contagion in listens
availability heuristic
making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
contact
most effective when contract is free of competition and equal status exist
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people
proximity
nearness, closeness, mere exposure effects
Attribution theory error
not asking the person why
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
social loafing
occurs when people work less hard in groups than they would individually over estimate there contribution like group projects common in men in individuals cultures
people who fear rejection
often elicit rejection
physical attraction predicts how often
people date and how popular they feel
brain regions become active when
people experience cognitive dissonance
People on both sides of any debate are aiming to
persuade
two-factor theory of emotion
physical arousal and cognitive appraisal
physical attractiveness
physical beauty, which is a powerful factor in attracting lovers to each other -similarity of attitudes and interest
proscocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
attractive people are suspicious that
praise their work
prejudice
prejudgment, having assumptions about anyone basked on factors before you even know them
social facilitation
presence of others arouses people, improving performance on easy or well-learned tasks but decreasing it on difficult ones easy task most like to do it right difficult task (more likely to not complete) there is pressure to perform
psychology of attraction
proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity
self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
the factors that foster attraction are explained by
reward theory of attraction
People's attractiveness is unrelated to their
self-esteem and happiness
behavior is influenced by
social contagion
interactions of
social control (wanting to be part of a group) and personal control
outgrip
"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
in-group
"us" people who we share a common idenity
passion-fed hormones
(testosterone) give way to oxytocin that supports feelings of trust, calmness, and bonding
modern matchmaking
-Internet-formed friendships and romantic relationships are on average slightly more likely to last and be satisfying. -Nearly a quarter of heterosexual and two-thirds of same-sex couples met online.
Why do we study social psychology?
Humans are naturally social creatures
Neural influences
-Neural systems facilitate or inhibit aggression when provoked -Aggression more likely to occur with frontal lobe damage
Biochemical influences
-Testosterone linked with irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration; alcohol effect
the milligram shock study
The experiment ordered "teachers" to deliver shocks to a "learner" for wrong answers
study of implicit prejudice by
-testing for unconscious group associations -considering unconscious patronization -Monitoring reflexive body responses
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
outgrip homogeneity
-the tendency to perceive members of an outgrip as all alike or homogenous, while viewing members of the in-group as "different as snowflakes" ex. -"They all look alike"
mere exposure effect
the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure
in-group bias
the tendency to favor one's own group
Genetic influences
-Evidence from animal studies and twin studies; genetic Y chromosome genetic marker; MAOA gene -Alcohol associated with aggression response to frustration
Biology influences aggression at three levels
-Genetic influences -Neural influences -Biochemical influences
implicit vs explicit bias
-Implicit: unconscious bias (thought to be true for a long time) - Explicit: Conscious bias (outwardly aggressive towards the people)
Implicit Association Test
A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.
stereotype
A generalized belief about a group of people
Conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Fritz Heider created the
Attribution theory
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction) - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions
Conciliation
GRIT
postive social norms encourages
Generosity and enables group living
stereotype is used to
Rationalize inequality
helping people to agree on regulations, to communicate better, and to be more aware of
Responsibility towards others fosters cooperation
Attribution theory
We may explain peoples behavior in terms of stable traits or in terms of a situation
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
Equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it fairness
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior as they pursue their own ends, thus creating an outcome that no one wants
elaboration likelihood model
a theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude changes
less attractive people are more likely to
accept praise as sincere
Norman Triplett experiment
someone is doing it and doing it faster the other person would go faster like completion
lessons learned
studies demonstrate that social influence can be strong enough to make people conform to falsehoods or capitulate to cruelty
group polarization
the beliefs and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss them with like-minded others
companionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Groupthink
the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome
the more we mimic
the greater our empathy, and the more people tend to like us
blame-the-victim dynamic
the idea that the victim of discrimination is partially responsible for that discrimination
attraction and sexual desire endure without
the obsession of early stage marriage
Sexual desire + a growing attachment =
the passion of romantic love
minority influence
the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities -those who resist are usually in the minority and do so very quickly. Those who stay conform to immoral behavior not long after other begin because there is social justification for their actions
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
social psychologists study
the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different situations
