Chapter 13 Sociology Terms and Topics

Social Cohesion

Durkheim noted the ability of religion to bring about a group unity and cohesion -- • all societies have a continuing NEED to REAFFIRM and UPHOLD their basic BELIEFS and VALUES • this is accomplished when people COME TOGETHER and COMMUNALLY PROCLAIM their acceptance of the dominant belief system -- in this way, people are BOUND to one another, and as a result the stability of the society is STRENGTHENED Durkheim also noted that HOSTILITY and PREJUDICE directed at its members by OUTSIDERS also helps STRENGTHEN BONDS between those members -- • example: the encounters with the residents that wanted to get rid of Mormons in their city produced a sense of collective identity at a time when it was desperately needed -- without this unity the group might have disappeared altogether • Durkheim's interest in the role of religion in society, was aroused by his observation that religion seemed to be a UNIVERSAL HUMAN INSTITUTION (like the family) -- this meant that religion must serve a RITUAL FUNCTION in MAINTAINING the SOCIAL ORDER

Islam

Islam, in Arabic, means "surrender" or "submission" • Islamic declaration of faith: shahadah -- "there is no god but Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet" • world's second largest religion • fasting for a holy month • two different divisions: sunnis and shiites • African american muslims • muslim Americans are more favorable than the actual religion of Islam • tend to be socially conservative

Adaptions to Society

Marvin Harris said there might be beneficial economic consequences -- from not participating in something that could go against a religion • the taboo of a religion appears to be adaptive to a society because there are alternatives (Hindus find cows to be sacred, so to respect their religion and to economically help them, they use oxen for resources when societies are under great stress or attack the people can become depressed which leads to institutions losing their meaning • society is threatened with what Durkheim called anomie (normlessness) -- social structure can break down -- leads to .... Revitalization Movements: powerful religious movements that stress a return to the traditional religious values of the past (for example, the Ghost Dance brought Plains Indians back into unity after U.S. government captured some)

Judaism

Orthodox Jews • observe traditional religious views closely • religious education is more important than non-religious education • lowest income Conservatie Jews • the middle between orthodox and reform • education and income is in the middle when compared Reform Jews • not as strict with traditional views like the Orthodox • best educated • highest incomes • moving to the direction of ordaining women rabbis • Israel represents a way of guaranteeing that never again will millions of jews perish in a holocaust -- homeland is seen to defend religion • Jewish population isn't high in the U.S. and is predicted it will continue to decline

The Elements of Religion

Prayer • means for individuals to address or communicate with supernatural beings or forces -- typically by speaking aloud while holding the body in a prescribed posture • all religions include a belief in the supernatural Emotion • in some religions, participants in rituals deliberately attempt to alter their state of consciousness through the use of drugs, fasting, sleep deprivation, and induction of physical pain • can be the result of divine or sacred intervention in human affairs • for example, Scandinavian groups ate mushrooms that caused euphoria -- believes it brings them closed to god Belief • includes a supernatural order and often a set of values to be applied to daily life • some religions believe that a valuable quality can flow from a sacred object, animate/inanimate and/or less/whole, to a lesser object • for example, some christians believe in the power of relics to work miracles simply because those objects once were associated physically with Jesus or one of his saints • in some religions, the source of the valued quality is a personalized deity -- in others, it is a reservoir of supernatural force that is tapped Organization • organizational structure: specialists can be recruited and trained, religious meetings conducted, and interaction facilitated between society and the members of the religion • promotes interaction among the members of the religion to foster a sense of unity and group solidarity • all religions demand some public, shared participation

Social Cohesion Continued with Durkheim Perspective

Totem: an ordinary object (such as a plant or animal) that has become a sacred symbol to and of a particular group or clan who not only revere (honor) the totem, but also identify with it Durkheim reasoned that totems and religion arose from society itself, not from outside it -- SOCIETY is the ORGIN of the shared religious beliefs which in turn HELPS MOLD society Durkheim thought that religion through rituals fulfills a number of social functions: • brings people TOGETHER physically PROMOTING social cohesion • REAFFIRMS group's beliefs and values • HELPS MAINTAIN norms, customs, and prohibitions so that violation of a secular law (murder or incest) can WARRANT ritual PUNISHMENT or PURIFICATION • transmits CULTURAL HERITAGE from one generation to the next • offers EMOTIONAL SUPPORT to individuals during times of stress and at important stages of life (puberty, marriage, death) • without a shared belief system, the social order of society will break down • religion depends on the internal acceptance of a moral value structure Durkheim believed that because religion is effective in bringing about COMMITMENT to SOCIAL NORMS, society usually presents those norms as an EXPRESSION of a DIVINE ORDER • for example: political authorities were believed to be gods in human form • authorities HELP MAINTAIN the larger social order and often are JUSTIFIED by an APPEAL to sacred authority Although religion serves to validate social inequality, it does function to sustain societal stability • some religious beliefs can lead to inequality (example: jews were kept from owning land and persecuted because of the myth "they had killed Christ" -- even slavery has been defended on religious grounds) Religions do not always validate non-religious (secular) authority • however the fact remains that religious institutions usually do dovetail (joint) neatly with other social institutions, legitimizing and helping to sustain them

Ecclesia

a church that shares the same ethical system as the non-religious society and has come to represent and promote the interest of the society at large • represents and promotes the interests of the ruling classes • usually the official or national religion • membership is by birth rather than by conscious decision (example: the Anglican Church is the official church of England)

Mana

a diffuse, non personalized force that acts through anything that lives or moves • considered dangerous because because of its power -- mana is neither harmful nor beneficial in itself, but it may be used by its possessors for either good or evil purposes • example: idea of luck -- which can be good or bad and over which we feel we have little control

Sect

a small group that adheres strictly to religious doctrine and often claims that they are the authentic version of the faith • represent a withdrawal from non-religious society and an active rejection of the non-religious culture

Establishing World Views

according to Max Weber, religion responds to the basic human need to understand the purpose of life • religion must give meaning to the social world within which life occurs -- creating a worldview that can have social, political, and economic consequences • for example: can salvation be achieved through active mastery (hard work) or passive contemplation (mediation) • God's salvation is required because humans are morally and spiritually incapable of following God or redeeming themselves -- divine intervention will change rebellion to obedience (some people will be saved while others will be condemned, people had to believe in the gospel and repent to be saved) Weber theorized that Calvinism (protestantism) fostered the Protestant ethic of hard work and thought that protestantism was an important influence on the development of capitalism • certain people are selected for heaven and others for hell -- calvinists believe that nothing can change this • strict discipline, hard work, self-control, money were factors to determine who was chosen for salvation, calvinists believed • capitalist virtues became calvinist virtues (capitalism blossomed from the creation of Calvinism) Today, it is generally agreed that although religious beliefs did indeed affect economic behavior, the belief of Protestantism and capitalism tended to support each other Lasting value of Weber's work is his demonstration of how religion creates and validates worldview and how important these views are to human social and political life

Profane

all empirically observable things -- that is, things that are knowable through common, every day experiences • may have utility for one or more individuals, but has little public relevance

Widespread Belief

although the religious affiliation and degree of church attendance differ widely, almost all Americans (92%) claim to believe in God • religion and conservatism have been seen as related • religion is one the rise with growth of mega churches and large numbers of worshippers • with more single-parent families, the transfer of religion to the next generation has been weakened • half of all religiously affiliated individuals belong to a protestant denomination (reflects America's colonial history) • there are more than 200 formally chartered religious organizations in America today -- waves of European immigrants influenced this • Americans' traditional tolerance of religious diversity reflects the constitutional separation of church and state, so that no one religion is recognized officially as better or more acceptable than any other

Magic

an active attempt to coerce spirits or to control supernatural forces -- differs from other types of religious beliefs in that one god/gods are not worshipped • used to control matters that seem to be beyond human control -- may involve danger and uncertainty difference between religion and magic: religion unifies a group of believers whereas magic is designed to help the individual who uses it • used to be used heavily during the Middle Ages -- witches, sorcery, werewolves, black magic • Rodney Stark and William Bainbridge noted that a belief in magic has always been a major part of Christian faith -- said that magic's respectability has decreased as more scientific attitudes have increased • since the 15th century, as many as 500,000 people have been executed for witchcraft • magic, especially magical healing, is now found mostly among sectarians and cultists

Monotheism

belief in the existence of one god • Judaism, Christianity, and Islam religions are known to be monotheistic -- have the greatest number of believers worldwide • these religions can be not purely monotheistic for example: Christianity includes belief in such divine or semi-divine beings as angels, the devil, saints, and the Virgin Mary -- but are still considered monotheistic

Secularism

believe that modern society is becoming secularized: less influenced by religion • people turn to non-religious sources for moral guidance in their everyday lives • the shift is reflected in Americans' lack of religious knowledge -- indifferent and ignorant to the basic doctrines of their faiths • modern society has turned to science • in this increasingly non-religious modern world, sacred validation appears to be unnecessary for establishing meaning and value in life

Conflict Theory Perspective

conflict theorists view religion as a means for justifying the political status quo Karl Max said that the dominant religion of a society is that of the ruling class • emphasize religions' role in justifying the political status quo by cloaking political authority with sacred validation and thereby making opposition to it seem immoral Alienation: people lose control over the social institutions they themselves created -- people believed to feel like strangers in their own world Marx believed that religion is one of the most ailenating influences in the human society -- fear of the god they created Marx saw religion as the tool that the upper classes used to maintain control of society and to dominate lower classes • through religion, masses were kept from actions that might change their relationship with those in power Religion has negative, or dysfunctional aspects • people constructed society and can change it but don't because they are settling for what they have currently -- conceals the natural and human causes of social problems • religion hinders much-needed changes in the social structure -- discourages the individual from taking steps to correct these conditions • limits independent thinking and the search for further knowledge

Social Aspects of Religious Affiliation

direct relationships can be traced between membership in a particular religious group and person's politics, professional and economic standing, educational level, family life, social mobility, and attitudes toward controversial social issues • attitudes toward social policy also seem to be correlated, to some extent, with religious affiliation • religious associations show definite correlations with people's political, social, and economic lives

Religious Diversity

even though the United States continues to be a predominantly christian country, it has become the world's most religiously diverse nation -- this is because of immigration of different ethnicities and their religions brought with them

Abstract Ideals

focus on the achievement of personal awareness and a higher state of consciousness through correct ways of thinking and behaving rather than by manipulating spirits or worshipping gods • promote devotion to religious rituals and practices and adherence to moral codes of behavior for example: The Buddhist's ideal is to become one with the universe, not through worship or magic, but by meditation and correct behavior

Universal Church

includes all the members of a society within one united moral community • does not seek to change the conditions of social inequality created by non-religious society and culture, and even may even validate them

Denomination

limits it membership to a particular class, ethnic group, or religious group -- to have its leadership positions dominated by members of such a group • no official or unofficial connection with the state • political involvement is purely a matter of choice by the denomination's leaders • participate actively in non-religious affairs while tending also to cooperate with other religious groups • In America, Lutheranism, Methodism, Catholicism and Judaism embody the characteristics of a denomination

Rituals

patterns of behavior or practices that are related to the sacred • for example, the christian ritual of Holy Communion is much more than the eating of wafers and the drinking of wine -- to many participants, these substances are the blood and body of Christ • for example, the Sun Dance was a ritual in which the plains Indians were seeking a personal communion

Supernaturalism

postulates (suggests) the existence of non personalized supernatural forces that can, and often do, influence human events • thought to inhabit animate and inanimate objects alike and that they come and go at their own will -- people, trees, rocks, places, even spirits/ghosts • supernatural beings fall into 2 broad categories: [1] those of nonhuman organ (gods and spirits) and [2] those of human organ (such as ghosts and ancestral spirits) • although gods may create, not all religions attribute the creation of the world to them • many of the gods thought to create have retired -- having set the world in motion, they no longer take part in day to day activities • on the contrary, other creator gods remain involved in ordinary human activities • some religions may have gods for different aspects (god of the sea/god of the forest) • many cultures believe that everyone has a soul and it survives after death

Satisfying Individual Needs

religion offers individuals ways to reduce anxiety and promote emotional integration • Sigmund Freud saw religion helpful to the individual coming to terms with impulses that induce guilt and anxiety -- argued that a belief in lawgiving, powerful deities could help reduce such behavior by providing strong, socially reinforced inducements for controlling dangerous or immoral impulses • individuals can calm themselves by appealing to deities for guidance or help • can calm their fears by trusting in God -- some things are beyond human control (natural disasters) • it is comforting to know the supernatural causes of good and bad fortune -- which leads people to believe that rituals can affect supernatural forces (example: eating the same meal before an author writes another book, a football coach will drink at the same coffee place at the same time before a game)

Religious Taboo

sacred prohibition against touching, mentioning, or looking at certain objects, acts, or people • can exist in reference to foods not to be eaten, places not to be entered, objects and people not to be touched • if violated, results in some form of pollution (impurity) • example, Jews and Muslims have taboos against eating pork at any time -- up until the early 1960s, Catholics were forbidden to eat meat on Fridays

The Functionalist Perspective

sociologists approach is to focus on the relationship between religion and society • examines the function religion plays in social life • since at least 60,000 years ago, religion has played a role in all known human societies • sociologists have identified 4 categories of religious function: 1) satisfying individual needs 2) promoting social cohesion 3) providing a world view 4) helping adaption to society

Religion

system of beliefs, practices, and philosophical values shared by a group of people; it defines the scared, helps explain life, and offers salvation from the problems of human existence • Durkheim observed that all religions divide the universe into 2 mutually exclusive categories: profane and sacred • believed that every society must distinguish between the 2 -- the distinction is essentially between the social and nonsocial Religious Symbols • acquire their particular sacred meanings through the religious belief system of which they are a part • sociologists believe that Jesus is the Messiah for Christianity is a religious symbol

Theism

the belief in divine beings (gods and goddesses) who shape human affairs most theistic societies practice > Polytheism: the belief in a number of gods • has particular spheres of influence such as childbirth, rain, or war • generally one is more powerful than the rest and oversees the others' activities

Animism

the belief in inanimate, personalized spirits or ghosts of ancestors that take an interest in, and actively work to influence, human affairs > the souls/spirits may inhabit the bodies of people and animals as well as inanimate objects such as plants or rocks • may be present in winds, rivers, or mountains • they are unique beings with feelings, motives, and a will of their own • may be good or evil • can be manipulated, persuaded, frightened away or appeased by using proper magic rituals • example: American Indian societies think sickness is caused by evil spirits -- shamans (medicine men/women) can effect cures because of special relationships with spirits and their knowledge • in our own culture, some people consult mediums, spiritualists, ouija boards in effort to contact the spirits/ghosts of departed loved ones

Ecumenism

the trend among many religious communities to draw together and project a sense of unity and common direction • partially a response to secularism and a tendency evident among many religions in the United States • most religious groups in America have focused on ethics (how to live an ethical and moral life) -- there is less likelihood of disagreement over ethics than over doctrine • American protestant denominations typically have had loose boundaries

Major Religions in the United States

there are different religious groups in the United States and they vary widely in practices, moral views, class structure, family values, and attitudes, social issues (example: a strong belief in sin is typical for Baptists) conservative protestant denominations include: pentecostals, southern baptists, and other baptists moderate: lutherans, methodists liberal: congregationalists, presbyterians, episcopalians substantial class differences among the major denominations -- Jews and Episcopalians have the highest median annual household incomes and also occupational prestige and education

Sacred

things that are awe inspiring and knowable only through EXTRAORDINARY experiences can consist of almost anything: • objects fashioned just for religious purposes (such as a cross) • a geographical location (Mt. Sinai) • a place constructed for religious observance (a temple) • a word or phrase ("our father, who art in heaven...") • or, even an animal (the cow to Hindus for example) • ideas/values are not to be debated -- they simply exist as unchallengeable truths

Millenarian Movements

typically prophesy the end of the world, the destruction of all evil people and their works, and the saving of the just • throughout history, religious leaders have emerged in times of stress to foretell the end of the world and asking everyone to stop what they're doing to follow the bearers of the message The World Coming to an End • doesn't mean pure destruction, but the destruction of evil and the victory of good • life is filled with meaning • every detail is linked to a much larger drama in which good and evil are at odds • even if the apocalyptic predictions didn't come true, people believed the world is a different place after them

Catholicism

• 24% of U.S. population is Roman Catholic -- representing the largest single religious denomination in the U.S. • most striking aspect is their youth -- members are usually young -- protestant denominations have had difficulty in retaining young people • american catholics has a large influence of immigration within their members (minority groups) • urban people, members mainly live in cities • doctrine has changed over the years (took a more conservative turn)

Protestantism

• the United States is a majority Protestant country -- makes up nearly 52% of adult population • immigration is lowering population • the largest group is baptists • well-defined and self-assured religious doctrine