Chapter 14
By adulthood, men's testosterone levels are about ____ higher, on average, than women's, although there is within-sex variation in testosterone levels
15 times
One study of over 5,200 students at three U.S. military academies found that ___% of women and 8% of men were sexually assaulted in the past year, and 5% of women and 2% of men were raped in the past year (
24
In 2015, the Association of American Universities (AAU) published the results of a massive study of sexual assaults conducted with over 150,000 students on 27 U.S. college campuses (AAU, 2015) Furthermore, only ____ of even the most serious incidents were reported to an official law enforcement agency or campus Title IX office.
28%
In the United States, 48% of sexual assault perpetrators are age __ or older, and 57% are ____
30, white
In 2015, the Association of American Universities (AAU) published the results of a massive study of sexual assaults conducted with over 150,000 students on 27 U.S. college campuses (AAU, 2015) Transgender students had higher rates of assault than cisgender women and men: ____ reported unwanted sexual contact.
30.8%
A study of female college students in the United States showed that only __% reported their assault to police or campus authorities, although almost 70% disclosed their victimization informally to someone else, usually a friend
5
the results of a recent meta-analysis estimated that ____% of rape allegations are false (C. E. Ferguson & Malouff, 2016). Thus, false allegations of rape are quite rare and are comparable to rates of false allegations of other felonies, such as murder
5.2
Research in the United States dating back to the 1970s confirms that women show as much, if not more, physical aggression in intimate relationships as men, with one national survey showing that women initiate intimate partner violence in ....
53% of cases, compared with men in 42% of cases
Similarly, Whitaker and colleagues found mutual violence (committed by both partners) to be the most common pattern among U.S. couples, but when it came to nonreciprocal violence (committed by just one partner), women were the perpetrators in __% of cases
70
In 2015, the Association of American Universities (AAU) published the results of a massive study of sexual assaults conducted with over 150,000 students on 27 U.S. college campuses (AAU, 2015) Less publicized were the results from men:
8.6% of male seniors reported experiencing some kind of unwanted sexual contact, and 2.9% had experienced unwanted penetration, attempted penetration, or oral sex.
most rapists are men. In a nationally representative survey of U.S. residents, men committed ___ of rapes of girls and women and __% of rapes of boys and men
98.1%, 93.3
In North America, contemporary nonaggressive cultures include the ...
Amish, the Hutterites, and the Mennonites
since the 1970s, rates of violent crime victimization in the United States have typically been highest among ....
Black people, followed by Latino people, and then White people.
men generally assign more blame to rape victims than women do, and White men assign more blame to ....
Black than to White female rape victims
____: Sexually explicit nonaggressive material that is meant to arouse.
Erotica
____ harassment refers to negative speech (e.g., sexist jokes) or behavior (e.g., gestures) that creates an intimidating or offensive environment, and it often occurs between individuals of equal status
Hostile environment
Note that explanations for gender-based aggression rooted in jealousy, honor, and patriarchy better explain heterosexual male-to-female violence than female-to-male, male-to-male, and female-to-female violence. In contrast, the ______ theory, which examines intimate partner violence through the lens of self-regulation, can explain violence across relationship types.
I3 (pronounced I-cubed)
___: Behaviors intended to harm another person's social relationships or status, often performed when the target is not physically present.
Indirect (relational) aggression
_____: Anxiety that boys and men feel about not living up to masculine expectations set by society.
Male discrepancy stress
Honor cultures are typically found in the....
Middle East, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and the southern United States
In the United States, 18.3% of women (about 22 million women) and 1.4% of men (about 1.6 million men) report being raped at least once in their lifetime. _____ in the United States are more likely to be raped (33.5%) than Native American women (26.9%), Black women (22.0%), White women (18.8%), and Latina women (14.6%; Black et al., 2011).
Multiracial women
____ people experiencing higher average rates of intimate partner violence than Latino, White, and Asian people
Native American, multiracial, and Black
A study of 42,000 randomly sampled women from the 28 European Union countries found that the three EU countries with the highest levels of male-to-female intimate partner violence were Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, and the three EU countries with the lowest levels were Poland, Austria, and Croatia. This finding is called the.....
Nordic paradox because Nordic countries simultaneously have the highest gender equality and the highest levels of male-to-female intimate partner violence in Europe
Direct aggression:
Overt verbal or physical behaviors aimed directly at another person, with the intention to harm.
____: Experiencing more than one type of aggressive victimization.
Polyvictimization
____ harassment occurs when a person with power offers advantages (e.g., a promotion) in exchange for sexual favors.
Quid pro quo
_____: Behavior that derogates or humiliates an individual based on the individual's sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity.
Sex-based harassment (sexual harassment)
______ A model proposing that repeated exposure to pornography desensitizes and habituates viewers, leading to callous sexual attitudes toward women.
Sexual callousness model
In the military, 22% of female and 7% of male active service members report experiencing sex-based harassment in the past year (Farris et al., 2016). ___ are the most common form of harassment of female service members, whereas being accused of not acting ___ enough is the most common harassment of male service members
Sexual jokes , masculine
While there is little evidence to support the _____ in terms of intimate partner violence, you may recall from Chapter 6 that countries characterized by greater gender inequality also have higher national levels of male-to-female ____ in general (Yodanis, 2004). Thus, patriarchal power structures are associated with increases in some—but not all—types of gender-based aggression.
Socioeconomic dependence perspective, sexual violence
The hypothesis that men use violence as a means of maintaining control over partners who are economically dependent on them and thus unlikely to leave.
Socioeconomic dependence perspective:
Globally, rape rates have been increasing since 1996 (although Canada and the United States show the reverse pattern), and the countries with the highest rates of rape are ____
South Africa, Australia, and Swaziland.
Child marriage occurs around the world but predominates in _________ (Nour, 2009). In most cases, child brides do not meet their future husbands before the wedding
South Asia, Africa, Latin America
The hypothesis that men engage in partner violence more often when they feel threatened by partners who have greater economic status and power than they do.
Status inconsistency perspective:
_____: An experience that meets the legal definition of rape but is not labeled as rape by the victim.
Unacknowledged rape
The race of male perpetrators also differs with the race of rape victims: Native American women are most frequently sexually assaulted by ____ whereas Black and White women are most frequently assaulted by ___ men
White men,, same-race
____ largely account for the growth in female incarceration, showing a 56% increase from 2000 to 2014, in comparison with a 7% increase for Latina women and a 47% decrease for Black women.
White women
One review found that for younger children, girls engaged in more cyberbullying than boys, but....
after about age 11, boys cyberbullied more than girls. Overall, the sex differences were small
women who have more _______D have a heightened risk for sex-based harassment
agentic traits, are less feminine, or who identify as feminists
the Che Wong of Malaysia, whose language lacks words for ...
aggression, war, quarreling, and fighting
White people are disproportionately less likely to be ___ for rape while Black and Latino people are disproportionately more likely to be ___ for rape
arrested
Furthermore, people from Pakistan, Ecuador, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Turkey (collectivistic, high-power-distance cultures) ____________ than people from Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States (individualistic, low-power-distance cultures)
assign more blame to victims of sex-based harassment and less blame to perpetrators
One study of 2,000 randomly selected middle schoolers found that children who experienced either traditional bullying (e.g., direct verbal aggression) or cyberbullying were almost twice as likely to __ as those who did not experience bullying
attempt suicide
One study found that women do not find men's aggression as ____ as men assume they will
attractive and desirable
men who are higher in male discrepancy stress——
commit more violence against intimate partners
According to the _____ of sexual aggression, two primary factors that predict men's sexual aggression against women are hostile attitudes toward women and a preference for impersonal sex that lacks emotional closeness
confluence model
Faced with this paternity uncertainty, men may have evolved heightened sensitivity to cues of a partner's infidelity or impending desertion because a female partner who mates with other men may become impregnated by them. Thus, a man who remains indifferent to his partner's infidelity risks two undesired outcomes: First, he may not pass on his own genes, and second, he may get duped into investing resources to raise someone else's offspring (a phenomenon referred to as cuckoldry). According to this perspective, men's jealousy is an adaptive strategy that facilitates reproductive success. Note also that jealousy may motivate men to....
control their partners with mate retention tactics, including violence (Buss & Shackelford, 1997). In support of this theory, jealousy is the most frequent reason offered for male-initiated intimate partner violence
In a study of workplace climate for LGBT employees in the United States, the majority (58%) reported overhearing ____ about LGBT individuals
derogatory comments or jokes
studies that examine associations on the cultural level find that as pornography becomes more widely available in cultures, rape rates ....
do not tend to increase, and sometimes they decrease
women victims of intimate partner violence more frequently end up in ....
emergency rooms and domestic violence shelters.
individuals who have difficulty regulating their ___ tend to perpetrate more intimate partner violence
emotions
A recent meta-analysis found that male sexual minority individuals experience various forms of aggression (property damage, threats, and verbal harassment) more often than female sexual minority individuals The same meta-analysis also found that sexual minority individuals, in comparison with heterosexual individuals, tend to ....
experience more violence, though most effect sizes were in the small range.
there are no sex differences in tendencies to ____
express anger (d = −0.04; Archer, 2004)
The links between testosterone and aggression in humans are ____ (Book, Starzyk, & Quinsey, 2001) and weaker than those found among nonhuman animals
fairly weak
women report more ___of their partners than men do (Caldwell, Swan, & Woodbrown, 2012)
fear
the _ likely contributes to female crime rates in the United States
feminization of poverty
People also blame _____ victims more than heterosexual male rape victims for their assaults
gay male rape
the ---- often frame the issue of intimate partner violence as one of men's dominative control of women. Because men are larger and stronger than women, and they possess more social power, it follows that they sometimes use violence as a tool of control in relationships. From this perspective, intimate partner violence is a gendered act that reinforces men's power over women
gender asymmetry perspective
In countries with less ______, women experience more (and men experience less) intimate partner violence.
gender equality
psychologists typically divide sex-based harassment into three different types of behavior:
gender harassment (making sexual or sexist remarks or gestures; displaying sexual or sexist materials), unwanted sexual attention (initiating unwanted sexual discussions or touching), and sexual coercion (compelling sexual favors through job threats or rewards)
the ______ holds that women and men physically assault their partners in roughly equal numbers, with largely parallel risk factors and motivations
gender symmetry perspective
Worldwide, over 200 million girls, most under the age of 15, have been injured in this manner (WHO, 2017a). Despite leading to long-lasting negative health consequences and being condemned by the WHO, ____ persists in many places because its proponents see it as a valued cultural ritual and an important part of cultural identity.
genital mutilation
Female incarceration rates for both violent and nonviolent crimes have ____ than male incarceration rates since the 1980s
grown more rapidly
some Black women report that White male coworkers use phrases in their presence such as "sexy black ass" or "big, sexy, Black women" (Buchanan & Ormerod, 2002, p. 115) while Latina women report coworkers' use of inappropriate pet names for them, such as "mamacita". this type of racialized sex-based harassment predicts ...
higher job stress, lower job satisfaction, and increased depression and anxiety among Black women and Latinas
Rates of male-to-female violence tend to be relatively high in _____, and community members generally accept male violence that is committed against wives in retaliation for infidelity
honor cultures
Some meta-analyses of experimental studies show that pornography exposure ____ behavior (M. Allen, D'Alessio, & Brezgel, 1995), but research findings are inconsistent.
increases aggressive
men tend to ___ their partners more often than women do.
injure
I3 theory: The theory that partner violence depends on the interplay of three factors: provocation by a partner (___), forces that create a strong urge to aggress (____), and forces that decrease the likelihood of aggression (__).
instigation, impellance, inhibition
Aggression: Behavior__ to cause psychological or physical harm to another person or animal.
intended
Sex differences in physical aggression emerge early in life, by about ages 3 to 6, which corresponds with the time that children in most societies begin....
interacting in organized peer groups.
Women and girls constitute the vast majority of targets of sexual aggression (Black et al., 2011), and men and women appear roughly equally likely to suffer ----
intimate partner violence
The World Health Organization (WHO, 2013) reports that 30% of women around the world experience physical violence by an __ at some point in their lives, and as many as 38% of all murders of women are committed by ___. In the United States, 35.6% of women and 28.5% of men are victims of ___ violence at some point in their lives
intimate partners
Women perpetrate situational couple violence at slightly higher rates than men, but men perpetrate ______ far more frequently than women
intimate terrorism
of transgender individuals who are open about their identity at work, 47% experience adverse ____ (e.g., being fired or denied a promotion), and 78% experience other forms of discrimination or mistreatment due to their transgender or gender-nonconforming identities.
job consequences
men --- their spouses more than women do, particularly in countries outside of the United States
kill
Some estimates indicate that up to 73% of women and 76% of men who experience rape do not....
label their experiences as rape
In general, the_____, the more likely he or she is to behave aggressively, both between and within the sexes. This likely occurs because smaller individuals risk greater injury when they aggress
larger the person
Ana Bridges and her colleagues randomly selected scenes from the 50 top-selling pornographic videos from December 2004 to June 2005 (Bridges et al., 2010). They found that 88% of scenes contained physical aggression (mostly spanking, gagging, and slapping), and about 49% of scenes contained verbal aggression, such as name-calling A more recent analysis of 400 videos from top pornography websites found .....
lower rates of aggression, with 40% of scenes containing physical violence, most all of which portrayed women as the targets
Nearly all _____ show more physical aggression than females of the same species One exception, however, is the spotted hyena. Female spotted hyenas are more physically aggressive, muscular, and dominant than their male counterparts, and they also have relatively _____ levels compared with females of other mammalian species
male mammals, high testosterone
People who more strongly endorse rape myths tend to interpret sexual violence as "rape" less often, especially if it involves circumstances that do not ...
match their typical scripts for rape
Meta-analyses of laboratory studies reveal that both men and women aggress more toward ....
men than toward women
Other risk factors for sexual assault perpetration among college men include having ....
more adverse childhood events, having more antisocial personality traits, engaging in more risky behavior, and approving of the use of alcohol to gain sexual compliance
China and India are high in power distance and collectivism, and men in these countries report being ______ than are men in the United States
more likely to commit sex-based harassment
Rape: Nonconsensual penetration of the _____ by the penis, fingers, or objects.
mouth, vagina, or anus
The WHO estimates that _____ women worldwide experiences some form of physical or sexual violence and that 7% of women are sexually assaulted by someone other than a partner
one in three
Between ______ of sexual assault victims around the world are 15 years old or younger
one-third and two-thirds
men who abuse alcohol and who hold hostile, sexist attitudes about women are more likely to...
perpetrate intimate partner violence
with incarcerated female (as compared with male) offenders more often having a background of....
physical or sexual abuse, mental illness, substance abuse, and economic marginalization
men who experience intimate partner violence are at increased risk for...
posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and suicidal ideation
Some research suggests that sex-based harassment is more common in cultures with greater...
power distance and higher levels of collectivism.
In support of I3 theory, a combination of strong ___ and weak ___ does, in fact, predict intimate partner violence
provocation, inhibitory control
Federal law in the United States recognizes two types of sex-based harassment: _______.
quid pro quo and hostile environment
________, which involves incidents where race-based and sex-based harassment are simultaneously present. Consider the case of Bari-Ellen Roberts, a Black female employee at Texaco who was called "a smart-mouthed little colored girl" by three White male Texaco senior executives during a board meeting
racialized sex-based harassment
meta-analysis of correlational studies found that greater exposure to pornography predicted more ____ among both men (r = 0.29) and women
real-life sexual aggression
Although some early research found that girls used more ___ than boys (Björkqvist, Österman, & Lagerspetz, 1994), recent meta-analyses report small or no sex differences in this type of aggression. When small sex differences (favoring women) emerge, they often occur in samples of older participants (e.g., not young children), and with methods other than self-report, such as observation, peer report, and teacher report (Card, Stucky, Sawalani, & Little, 2008; Scheithauser, Haag, Mahlke, & Ittel, 2008). Thus, overall, the evidence does not point to large sex differences in ____
relational aggression.
One study of over 800 adult pornography users found that 75% of them were "recreational users" who watch pornography occasionally, have low levels of distress or guilt associated with pornography viewing, and report...
relatively high levels of sexual satisfaction and functioning
National surveys in both the United Kingdom and the United States reveal that only 20%-34% of people who experience sexual violence ....
report their assaults to law enforcement authorities
In one sample, Black women—in comparison with Hispanic and White women—were more likely to ______ to the police, and people reported more _____ of sexual assault (e.g., perpetrated by a stranger or with a weapon) to the police more often than less stereotypical incidents
report their sexual victimization, stereotypical incidents
While researchers estimate that approximately 25%-30% of women's relationship violence is committed in ______(Straus, 2005), women report many other motivations as well, such as responding to verbal provocation, retaliating, and gaining control
self-defense
President Ronald Reagan set up a commission in 1985 to investigate its effects. The commission, which consisted of a majority of antipornography activists, concluded that pornography had harmful effects on its users, although ...
several psychologists immediately criticized the report as biased and inaccurate
In middle and high school settings in the United States, approximately 56% of girls and 40% of boys experience ____ per year, with the most frequent type being unwelcome comments, jokes, and gestures
sex-based harassment
In 2015, the Association of American Universities (AAU) published the results of a massive study of........(AAU, 2015). Overall, 27% of female seniors reported experiencing some type of nonconsensual sexual contact perpetrated through incapacitation (by alcohol, drugs, or force) since entering college, and 13% had experienced unwanted penetration, attempted penetration, or oral sex.
sexual assaults conducted with over 150,000 students on 27 U.S. college campuses
Note that ____ aligns more with quid pro quo harassment, whereas _____ map more onto hostile environment harassment.
sexual coercion gender harassment and unwanted sexual attention
While survey research in Western, industrialized nations finds that women perpetrate slightly more aggression in heterosexual relationships than men (Archer, 2000), this partly reflects how researchers measure intimate partner violence. For example, studies that find gender symmetry in intimate partner violence often do not measure acts such as _______ which are perpetrated more frequently by men
stalking and sexual violence,
Consistent with the ____ researchers explain the ____ in terms of backlash against Nordic women for occupying a relatively high status in society
status inconsistency perspective, the Nordic paradox
Rapists use weapons in only about 11% of assaults, and rape targets typically know their offenders. In the United States, only 22% of sexual assaults are committed by ________, in contrast to 38% committed by acquaintances, 34% by intimate partners, and 6% by relatives.
strangers
Latinas generally experience lower rates of sexual assault than White, Black, Asian, and Native American women, although U.S.-born Latinas experience higher rates of sexual assault in....
the United States than foreign-born immigrant or migrant worker Latinas
Neil Malamuth and his colleagues to conclude that some individuals are both more likely to seek out pornography and more likely to be impacted by it negatively. That is...
the individuals who show the greatest negative effects from watching aggressive pornography are men who are already predisposed toward sexual aggression and who watch pornography frequently
Bosson and colleagues had some men braid a mannequin's hair, a stereotypically feminine task that was intended to challenge men's gender status (Bosson, Vandello, Burnaford, Weaver, & Wasti, 2009). In a control group, men braided rope, which was a more gender-neutral version of the braiding task. All men were then given the option of either solving a "brainteaser" puzzle or punching a heavy bag. Just as predicted, more men in the hair-braiding group (50%) chose _____ relative to the men in the control group (22%). In another experiment, all men punched a heavy bag after braiding either hair or rope, and the men who had braided hair ___ than those who braided rope
the punching activity punched harder
Jennifer Lightdale and Deborah Prentice (1994) had participants play a video game in which they could drop virtual bombs on an opponent under conditions that either drew attention to their identity (they were singled out and wore a name tag) or did not highlight their identity (they were not singled out and did not wear a name tag). When participants' identity was highlighted, men dropped more bombs than women, presumably to conform to gender norms. However, when participants' identity was not salient, .....
the sex difference vanished, and women behaved just as aggressively as men.
President Lyndon Johnson set up the President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography. Based on research showing that the availability of pornography did not lead to an increase in sexual crimes after Denmark legalized pornography in 1969 (Kutchinsky, 1970), the commission concluded that ...
there was no evidence that pornography was a serious social problem.
this study also showed that children who bullied others were more likely to attempt suicide than ...
those who did not bully.
men in one experiment committed more sex-based harassment toward a woman after they experienced a ...
threat to their masculinity
sex differences in lab settings (favoring men) tend to be larger when the aggression is ...
unprovoked than when it is provoked
men who ____ more frequently experience sex-based harassment, typically at the hands of other men. For instance, fathers who are active caregivers report being harassed at work for not being "manly" enough
violate gender role norms
In 2015, men in the United States accounted for about 80% of overall _____ and about 88% of arrests for ____
violent crime arrests, murder and non-negligent manslaughter
Men are more likely than women to be victims of almost all types of _____, including homicides, assaults, and armed robberies
violent crimes
Testosterone may influence aggressive behavior, but competitive social situations can cause changes in testosterone. For instance, testosterone levels rise and fall in response to ...
winning or losing sports matches (Archer, 1991), and holding a gun briefly in a laboratory increases men's testosterone levels
Similarly, women in male-dominated organizations experience more harassment than ....
women in female-dominated organizations
In the ____, estimated sex-based harassment rates for women hover in the 40%-60% range, whereas rates for men range from 10%-20%.
workplace
Men who kill their spouses typically do so after suspecting infidelity, perpetrating long periods of intimidation and abuse, and being left by their spouses. In contrast, wives are more likely to kill their husbands following ...
years of abuse and out of self-defense or fear
young male syndrome
young adult men between 18 and 24 years old still commit a disproportionate share of violent crimes (A. Cooper & Smith, 2011). Evolutionary psychologists Margo Wilson and Martin Daly (1985) coined the term young male syndrome to capture this phenomenon. After examining homicides across many cultures and time periods, they find a remarkably consistent pattern: Men are much more likely to kill (and be killed) in their late teens and early 20s than at any other time in their lives
being ____ places individuals at a higher risk of sexual assault.
young, female, marginalized, and disempowered
