chapter 15 and 16 test

Conquistadors

(from Portuguese or Spanish conquistadores "conquerors"; Spanish pronunciation: [koŋkistaˈðoɾes], Portuguese pronunciation: [kũkiʃtɐˈdoɾis], [kũkiʃtɐˈðoɾɨʃ]) is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Portuguese Empire or the Spanish Empire in a general sense.

Mercantilism

(review the hand out in class)

Columbian exchange: food, impact of population, economy and culture

Food brought more people to the area. Economy grew because of entrepreneurs and job opportunity. Culture was mixed american and european(i think)

Spread of European diseases

II. SMALLPOX This viral disease is relatively recent in human history and is believed to have come from cattle or possibly monkeys. It probably originated in the area around the Caspian Sea. It became epidemic throughout Europe following the Crusades, and was brought to the New World several times by explorers. Epidemic after epidemic swept Europe following the Crusades during the Middle Ages. It killed one third of the people and producing permanent pock marks in another third of its victims. Smallpox is a classic epidemic disease that was sustainable only by large human populations. •This disease seems to have had origins in large domesticated herbivores and subsequently mutated to become an exclusively human disease. ..... Cowpox, a benign related disease in cows produces few symptoms in humans and confers immunity to smallpox. This is an observation that led to successful mass immunization against the disease. (My note: This illustrates cross immunity where immunity to one disease works against a second, closely related one.) (Medical trivia: The vaccine BCG for tuberculosis has shown to confer little immunity to TB, but strangely provides immunity to leprosy about 50% of the time. BCG is not used in the United States. See Wills, p 249.) (My historical note: Smallpox no longer ravages humanity. Until twenty years ago, vaccination with cowpox virus was used--a technique initiated by Jenner in 1796. Ancient peoples in India, China, and Persia observed permanent immunity following recovery from smallpox and reasoned that innoculation with the dried crusts of pustules. Most worked, but occasionally some persons died from a full blown case of smallpox.) The deadly smallpox virus, which disfigures and often causes blindness and death, was eradicated from nature early in the 1980s. A major triumph for public health, smallpox eradication remains a landmark in disease management. The last outbreak was in Somalia in 1977. The virus survives today in freezers located in Atlanta (Center for Disease Control) and Koltsovo, Russia (near Moscow). Those laboratory specimens were due for incineration in June, 1995, but this was postponed by the World Health Organization in the interest of research. (My note: The fate of smallpox specimens in Atlanta and Moscow remains uncertain. President Clinton has decided to keep the US stock because of fears of bio terrorism [Chicago Tribune April 23, 1999]. The World Health Organization has decided to delay the destruction of the last stocks until 2002 [Chicago Tribune May 22, 1999]. There is a fear that a rogue state like North Korea may also have a stockpile of smallpox virus. We have a unit on germ warfare later in this course.) ..... III. TYPHUS Typhus is caused by 'bacteria-like microorganisms' that are 'obligate parasites' of lice. Humans thus become an accidental host for the disease when exposed to the lice. The louse (singular for lice) epidemic form of typhus has been one of the greatest killers of mankind, especially in the aftermath of war when it attacks the cold and hungry. This disease has disabled armies and devastated civilians. You might enjoy the classic reader on this disease, Zinsser's Rats, Lice, and History. (My note: Zinsser, a legend in microbiology was also a witty writer. He said that "Napoleon's retreat from Moscow was started by a louse!" Typhus fever was introduced into the Americas by the Spanish explorers where it ravished the Indian population and even now persists in endemic form in Mexico, Central, and South America. There were major outbreaks in World War I, World War II and 1951 in Korea. It is always out there, but makes an appearance when social upheaval leave people cold, filthy and hungry. Typhus is a disease of crowding and dirt, particularly likely to occur in conditions where people are crowded together and lacking means of ensuring bodily cleanliness. This disease clearly illustrates the importance of public health and social justice in the eradication of disease. Transmission is by the bite of the louse. Typhus is always there among lice, ready to recur whenever public health measures are lax. Vaccination provides an effective, long-lasting immunity and is necessary for military personnel. Prevention also requires cleanliness and louse killing measures. This is a classic zoonotic disease that, unlike smallpox, remains endemic in the louse and lurks ready to appear in conditions of poverty and social disintegration. ..... IV. CHOLERA This is a recent disease, with its history largely confined to the last two hundred years. The causative organism is a Spirillaceae bacterium. Cholera was originally confined to India early in the nineteenth century. It spread rapidly in association with two patterns of population movement: the movement of Islamic pilgrims to and from Mecca and to various parts of the world, and the deployment of British military throughout the Empire. Cholera, in fact continues to spread, arriving in new parts of the world, often accompanying industrialization--a process that has continued even past 1960. Humans are the only known host for the cholera vibrio. The disease must be maintained by an unbroken chain of mild or subclinical infections. The true home on endemic cholera is the Yangtze River Valley in China and the delta of the Ganges in India. Cholera remains endemic in Asia, the Middle East, Africa. and the Gulf Coast of the United States. It is spread by water, seafood, and other foodstuffs contaminated with the excrement of infected persons. The composer Tchaikovsky is said to have died of it in 1893 after drinking unboiled tap water in Russia. ..... My note: Epidemics of cholera and other water borne diseases in Chicago led to the engineered reversal of the Chicago River at the turn of the century with the opening of the Sanitary and Ship Canal. This ended forever contamination of Lake Michigan drinking water by Chicago sewage which heretofore had been emptied into the lake. Earlier, in 1885, six inches of rain in less than a day caused such contamination of the Lake Michigan water supply that deadly outbreaks of typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery and other water borne diseases devastated the city. Twelve percent of the Chicago population died! Another disease epidemic hit Chicago in 1890; it lasted for two years, giving Chicago one of the highest death rates in the world. Daniel Burnham (who said 'make no small plans') was determined to have pure water for the Columbian Exposition of 1894 on Chicago's South Side. He directed construction of a temporary 101 mile gravity pipeline from a freshwater spring at Waukesha, Wisconsin to the Exposition. Not one person became ill. A testament to what modern engineering could do for public health. ..... People living in areas endemic with cholera acquire a natural immunity. Vaccination, however, provides only incomplete immunity. Treatment of cholera is largely supportive for dehydration. Water and sewage treatment along with effective sanitation remains the best defense against cholera. My note: Cholera vibrio microorganisms overcome a daunting ordeal to infect people. First, they face stomach acids which decimates them. Only one in a million microorganisms survives. They compete with other bacteria, long adapted for survival in the human digestive system and they may kill or suppress invaders. It is called vibrio because it has a propeller-like tail to propel it and a way to sense crevices in the lining of the small intestine. There it releases a toxin that causes biochemical changes in the intestinal cells releasing a flood of water and electrolytes. This new induced environment favors the cholera organism over other intestinal organisms. The floods of fluids wash the competition away. Within hours, diarrheal discharges contain more than 100 billion cholera organisms per liter. How's that for overwhelming the competition? ..... V. MEASLES Measles appears to have come from rinderpest in cattle or distemper in dogs. This viral disease in modern in origin and attacks all available human hosts resulting in death or a life-long immunity. Humans are the only host for measles. It must be passed on, person to person; there is no intermediate host or means of survival on inanimate objects. It is perhaps the most infectious of all the specific human diseases. People of all races and all ages are infected readily by even a casual exposure. In most industrialized countries, measles is a childhood disease because most adults are immune as a result of a previous childhood infection. A population of at least 230,000 to 500,000 persons is needed to sustain the disease. In smaller populations as on islands or among the Eskimo, the disease will infect every susceptible person and then lacking other persons, the disease will 'burn itself out' and disappear. When measles first appeared amongst aboriginal populations, it swept through them with a violence that was unknown among more Old World nations in which the disease had been endemic for centuries. Such was the great epidemic in the Fiji Islands in 1874, and those which occurred in the South Sea Islands and among Native American Indians in the Americas. In isolated communities, everyone may become immune by exposure to infection and the virus disappears. This results in a new generation which is universally susceptible to the disease. Note well: measles is a modern disease whose origin seems to be related to the growth of human population and its tendency to settle into dense aggregates or widespread and efficient trade networks. It is a disease of civilization, a classic 'crowd' epidemic disease which requires large numbers of people to persist. Although the virus comes from dogs or cows, the critical mutation only occurred just after the emergence of urban centers. Treatment is symptomatic. An effective vaccine is available.

columbus's voyage and where he landed and what he discovered

columbus sailed from spain to the bahamas and when he landed he found the native americans

magellan and circumnavigation of the globe

magellan was one of the first people to explore the world trying to find a good spice route

portugese control of malacca

portugese understood importance of malacca and tried to take it, but failed the first time and took it eventually

Commercial revolution: prices, capitalism, joint stock company

1. Nations were looking for new trade routes which led to new explorations. 2. Nations sought new sources of wealth and new economic theories and practices to deal with this new-found wealth. 3. Nations had the desire for increased world power through their colonial empires. I. The Economy of the Commercial Revolution: A. mercantilism --> the colony existed for the benefit of the mother country; a monpolistic global eco. system. B. bullionism --> the accumulation of precious metals by governments was seen as very important to the prestige and power of a modern nation. C. capitalism --> private ownership of the means of production and distribution; capital is invested in order to produce more capital. D. Emergence of a new eco. system: -- new No. European banking interests --> Fugger family. -- charter banks --> Bank of Amsterdam (1609); bank of London (1694). -- stock exchange --> Bourse at Antwerp. -- insurance companies --> Lloyd's of London (maritime -- ship catalogs/classifications). -- joint-stock companies. E. Development of the Domestic System: -- increased specialization of skills within a more efficient system of over-all production. -- farm families can supplement their incomes. -- the accumulation of capital in the hands of the entrepreneur made possible the purchase of raw material in greater bulk. -- the capitalist entrepreneur could now operate without the restrictions imposed by the urban guilds. II. The Age of European Discovery: A. Columbus and the first conquistadores. -- ecological exchange and its effects on both the Americas and Europe and Africa. -- destruction of Amer-Indian cultures. B. Establishment of European Colonial Empires in the Americas and Asia. -- encomienda system (Latin America). -- Portuguese/Dutch/British/French trade in Southeast Asia. III. Effects of the Commercial Revolution: A. inflation --> "price revolution". B. population increase --> emergence of the middle class. C. increase in world trade. D. shift from the old market ports of the Mediterranean to the trans-Atlantic trade. E. new trade restrictions (ex.: East India Co. --> royal monopolies). F. economic depression at the end of the 16c. G. African slave trade established (Triangle Trade). H. changes in the social structure (role of the nobility, esp.) in Eastern and Western Europe.

Middle passage

African slaves were thereafter traded for raw materials, which were returned to Europe to complete the "Triangular Trade". The Middle Passage was the stage of the triangular trade in which millions of people from Africa were shipped to the New World as part of the Atlantic slave trade.

Origins of slavery in Africa

Africans traded people for guns and weaponry

Decline of guilds

After 1350, markets began to grow smaller, and the powerful long-distance merchants had to lower their costs in order to compete. They did so by producing their own goods, by-passing the guilds. There were two major systems of such "proto-capitalist" production. The "putting-Out System Merchants' agents would rent the necessary equipment to peasant families, sell them raw materials, and purchase the finished product. This process was particularly common in the production of candles, clocks, pewter ware, stockings, hats, but most particularly in weaving. This system continued to be common until the end of the 19th century, and the early parts of George Eliot's (1819-1880) novel, Silas Marner, offer a good picture of its operation at its height. The "Factory" System The merchants would concentrate equipment in a warehouse ("factory"), acquire raw materials from their own farms or through agents, hire workers for wages only, ignore any production quotas, and compete rather than co-operate. This system was used primarily for manufacture consisting of several steps or dealing with heavy materials. It eventually developed into the factory system characteristic of the Industrial Era and which is still prevalent in the post-Industrial age. The manufacturing guilds fought the development of these proto-capitalist systems, but were defeated by an alliance of the merchants' and the other "great" guilds (professional groups such as doctors, druggists, lawyers, gold- and silver-smiths). Although there were class wars in many towns, the artisan guilds were unable to compete economically, and so eventually disappeared. Many guilds persisted for a long time, however, especially those in retail and small-scale service and repair. It was only with the appearance of shopping centers and "supermarkets" after World War II that butchers and bakers lost their professional status, while such groups as plumbers have managed to keep that status. The professional guilds developed into the American Medical Association, the American Bar Association, and the silver- smiths and gold-smiths became the economy's bankers. THE RESULTS OF THE RISE OF PROTO-CAPITALISM The proto-capitalists of the later middle ages did not support civic services, so urban life deteriorated. The workers' standard of living dropped, and this reduced their ability to buy the goods they produced. The European consumer markets grew quite restricted, and this contributed to a general recession in the fifteenth century. Production was now uncontrolled, and cycles of inflation and depression became common. More production was moved to the countryside, and wealth concentrated more rapidly in ever-fewer hands. Together with the disappearance of the manorial system in the countryside, the emergence of capitalism altered the structure of society. Peasants and middle class split into two classes, the proprietors and a proletariat, the lower levels of which merged with the pauper class. Something of the same thing was happening among the nobility, where there was an increasing gap between the squires and the magnates. The medieval structure of social classes was being replaced by the modern structure based upon economic classes.

vasco de gama and the cape of good hope

After sailing down the western coast of Africa and rounding the Cape of Good Hope, his expedition made numerous stops in Africa before reaching the trading post of Calicut, India, in May 1498. sent on a second expedition to India in 1502, during which he brutally clashed with Muslim traders in the region

Hernan Cortes and the fall of the Aztecs

Cortés, learning that the Aztec empire of Montezuma was honeycombed with dissension, assumed the role of deliverer and rallied the coastal Totonacs to his standard; he also began negotiations with Montezuma. Scuttling his ships to prevent the return of any Velázquez sympathizers to Cuba, he began his famous march to Tenochtitlán (modern Mexico City), capital of the Aztec empire. He defeated the Tlaxcalan warriors and then formed an alliance with the so-called republic of Tlaxcala; practically destroyed Cholula; and arrived at Tenochtitlán in Nov., 1519. There the superstitious Montezuma received the Spanish as descendants of the god Quetzalcoatl. Cortés seized his opportunity, took Montezuma hostage, and attempted to govern through him. In the spring of 1520, Cortés went to the coast, where he defeated a force under Pánfilo de Narváez. Pedro de Alvarado, left in command, impetuously massacred many Aztecs, and soon after Cortés's return the Aztecs besieged the Spanish. In the ensuing battle, Montezuma was killed. The Spanish, seeking safety in flight, fought their way out of the city with heavy losses on the noche triste [sad night] (June 30, 1520). Still in retreat, they defeated an Aztec army at Otumba and retired to Tlaxcala. The next year Cortés attacked the capital, and after a three-month siege Tenochtitlán fell (Aug. 13, 1521). With it fell the Aztec empire. As captain general, Cortés extended the conquest by sending expeditions over most of Mexico and into N Central America. In 1524-26, Cortés himself went to Honduras, killing Cuauhtémoc, the Aztec emperor, in the course of the expedition.

King Affonso I's resistance to slave trade

In African societies, there are many examples of opposition to the transatlantic slave trade. One of the earliest documented is the correspondence of the Kongo ruler Nzinga Mbemba (also known as Afonso I, c. 1446-1543) who wrote to the king of Portugal, João III, in 1526 to demand an end to the illegal depopulation of his kingdom. The Kongolese king's successor Garcia II made similar unsuccessful protests. Other African rulers took a stand. For instance, in the early 17th century Nzinga Mbandi (c. 1583-1663), queen of Ndongo (modern-day Angola), fought against the Portuguese - part of a century-long campaign of resistance waged by the kingdom against the slave trade. Anti-slavery motives can also be found in the activities of the Christian leader Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita (1684-1706) in Kongo. Several major African states took measures to limit and suppress the slave trade, including the kingdoms of Benin and Dahomey. Agaja Trudo, the king of Dahomey (r. 1708-40), banned the slave trade and even went as far as attacking the European forts on the coast. Unfortunately, Agaja Trudo's successor did not share his view and profited from engaging in the trade. Several Muslim states in West Africa, including Futa Toro in the Senegal River basin in the late 18th century and, in the early 19th, Futa Jallon in what is now Guinea, were opposed to the trafficking of humans. In Futa Jallon, the religious leader Abd al-Qadir wrote a letter to British slave traders threatening death to anyone who tried to procure slaves in his country. Many ordinary Africans also took measures to protect themselves from enslavement. Flight was the most obvious method, but there is also evidence that many Africans moved their villages to more inaccessible areas or took other measures to protect them. In his Narrative, Olaudah Equiano mentions some of the defensive measures that were taken in his own village. It is reported that, when the English slave trader John Hawkins attempted to kidnap people to enslave them in the late 16th century, he was resisted. It is also said that communities of Africans who had fled from and escaped enslavement settled on the Cape Verde and other islands off the west coast of Africa. Other reports tell of coastal residents who refused to load slave ships with supplies and of many escapes from the forts that held enslaved Africans prior to transport across the Atlantic.

Changes in society

Middle class grew much more, land lords, vassals became poor, cities had large populations, entrepreneurs flourished, and food attracted people to Europe to help grow it population.

Importation of Africans: Reason for

Needed slaves since the New Law of the Indies banned making Native Americans slaves. Africans were willing to sell guns for their own people

Francisco Pizarro and the fall of the incas

Pizarro's timing for conquest was perfect. By 1532, the Inca Empire was embroiled in a civil war that had decimated the population and divided the people's loyalties. Atahualpa, the younger son of former Incan ruler Huayna Capac, had just deposed his half-brother Huascar and was in the midst of reuniting his kingdom when Pizarro arrived in 1531, with the endorsement of Spain's King Charles V. On his way to the Incan capital, Pizarro learned of the war and began recruiting soldiers still loyal to Huascar. Realizing Atahualpa was initially more valuable alive than dead, Pizarro kept the emperor in captivity while he made plans to take over his empire.In response,Atahualpa appealed to his captors' greed, offering them a room full of gold and silver in exchange for his liberation. Pizarro consented, but after receiving the ransom, Pizarro brought Atahualpa up on charges of stirring up rebellion. By that time, Atahualpa had played his part in pacifying the Incans while Pizarro secured his power, and Pizarro considered him disposable. Atahualpa was to be burned at the stake—the Spanish believed this to be a fitting death for a heathen—but at the last moment, Valverde offered the emperor clemency if he would convert. Atahualpa submitted, only to be executed by strangulation. The day was August 29, 1533. Fighting between the Spanish and the Incas would continue well after Atahualpa's death as Spain consolidated its conquests. Pizarro's bold victory at Cajamarca, however, effectively marked the end of the Inca Empire and the beginning of the European colonization of South America.

Shaka and the Zulus

Shaka, founder of the Zulu Kingdom of southern Africa, is murdered by his two half-brothers, Dingane and Mhlangana, after Shaka's mental illness threatened to destroy the Zulu tribe.

The Dutch in South Africa and the Boers in Cape Town

The Dutch and Africans began fighting again in 1673. Some Khoikhoi clans were more hostile to the Dutch than others, and some were more impoverished than others. The Dutch exploited these differences and old clan rivalries. They persuaded impoverished clans to attack the more hostile and prosperous clans. The war ended in 1677 with the more powerful Khoikhoi clan - the Cochoqua - weakened and the Dutch East India Company having larger herds of cattle and sheep.In the 1680s and 1690s more settlers arrived at Cape Town, including around 200 Huguenots who had been driven from France.

Arrival of the British and the Great Trek

The Great Trek (Afrikaans: Die Groot Trek) was an eastward and north-eastward emigration away from British control in the Cape Colony during the 1830s and 1840s by Boers (Dutch/Afrikaans for "farmers"). The migrants were descended from settlers from western mainland Europe, most notably from the Netherlands, northwest Germany and French Huguenots. The Great Trek itself led to the founding of numerous Boer republics, the Natalia Republic, the Orange Free State Republic and the Transvaal being the most notable.

line of demarcation

The Line of Demarcation was an imaginary longitude, moved slightly from the line drawn by Pope Alexander VI to divide new lands claimed by Portugal from those of Spain.

Immunity

The leading theory is based on the European's mobility and heavy intermixing. For thousands of years, Europe had been a crossroads for trade and war. Trading could be had from the British Isles all the way to the shores of Japan. Because of this constant contact with outsiders, strangers and visitors from far away places, they had already encountered an extraordinary number of diseases and plagues. This made the average European's immune system incredibly robust. On the other hand, the Americas were quite isolated by comparison, virtually cut off from the rest of the world. While different groups of Native Americans did occasionally intermix and/or go to war with one another, it wasn't remotely close to the breadth and scale of their counterparts across the Atlantic. Relative to the Europeans, the Native American's immune system was virtually non-existent by comparison. Further compounding the problem was the fact that the Native Americans of early America were descendants from a very small, homogenous group - their gene pool was limited. Immune systems thrive on variety. The greater the variety of things an immune system experiences, the greater number of microbes it can immediately recognize and therefore destroy before causing harm. Another contributing factor to the strength of the European immune system is that they had spent a long time around domestic animals. Domestic animals, like dogs, pigs and cows, were the source of the many diseases to afflict humans in the Old World. By contrast, Native Americans had very few domestic animals. Though, there may have been at least one Native American bug that wiped out quite a few Europeans. Contested and controversial, we might have the new world to thank for syphilis. The first known case of syphilis showed up in Italy in 1494. Many believe the Spanish contracted syphilis in Haiti and the Dominican Republic then gave it to the Italians and French at the siege of Naples.

Reasons for Spanish victories

There were several reasons that the spanish were able to defeat the Aztecs, and these applied to the Incas as well. The Spanish had much more advanced technology than the Aztecs, such as gunpowder, horses, cannons, and steel weapons (which were stronger than the Aztec obsidian blades). The Spanish also had the advantage of surprise, as they were welcomed into the Aztec empire as honored guests but abruptly betrayed and slaughtered many Aztec citizens before they were driven from the city. Third, European diseases such as smallpox took their toll on the Aztec people. Finally, the Aztecs did not continue and finish defeating the Spanish after La Noche Triste, the only major Aztec victory during the conquest. The Spanish survivors were thus able to regroup and return with more soldiers.

trading outposts

To secure their ability to trade, the Portuguese seized ports and built fortifications on shores along their route to the East. Portugal had men with a sense of ardor and aggression and an attraction to military escapades - the aristocratic spirit.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Treaty of Tordesillas, (June 7, 1494), agreement between Spain and Portugal aimed at settling conflicts over lands newly discovered or explored by Christopher Columbus and other late 15th-century voyagers

Triangular trade

Triangular trade, or triangle trade, is a historical term indicating trade among three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has export commodities that are not required in the region from which its major imports come.

Native response to arrival of Europeans

When the first Europeans arrived in North America they believed they were in India and named the natives Indians, the name was to stick for nearly 500 years. The arrival of Europeans posed problems for the native Americans. Some groups chose to co-exist with the Europeans and adapted themselves to a more European style of living. Others however, wanted to preserve their traditional way of life and moved to areas unwanted by the Europeans. The arrival of Europeans also initiated the decline of the Native Indians. Entire villages were wiped out by diseases such as measles, smallpox, cholera and pneumonia to which the Indians had no inbuilt immunity. Others, forced to leave their traditional hunting and farming lands found it difficult to re-establish themselves elsewhere and suffered malnutrition and death.

geography of southeast asia

surrounded by water

arrival of dutch in southeast asia

the dutch took over most of the trading routes and india

advances in navigational technology

the magnetic compass was made. the hourglass was used to tell time. astrolobe was used to find latititude.

motives for European exploration

wanted to find the Northwest Passage, which they believed was a direct and efficient route to the Orient - home of spices, silks and wealth. They also wanted to lay claim to new land to expand their empires.