Chapter 15: Art of the Americas

Great Serpent Mound

Adams County, Ohio Adena Culture 1070 CE Earthwork -measures approximately 1,300 feet in length and is one to three feet in height -a crescent shape and is in a way such that the head is at the east and the tail is at the west with exactly seven winding coils in between -shape of the head is the most emphasized part in this whole art and this is because of the way it looks and how it contrasts between the winding coils of body -some scholars and people believe that the oval shape is an enlarged eye and some see it as a egg and not head -There were numerous mounds made by the native American cultures that flourished in Mississippi, Ohio, Illinois and Missouri rivers -many were destroyed as farms spread across this region during the modern period or modern era -unique geologic formations suggest that a meteor struck this exact site approximately 250- 300 million years ago, causing the folded bedrock underneath the mound -Adena Culture is Pre-Columbian Native American Culture that existed from 500 BCE to 100 BCE in a period known as the Early Woodland period -centrered on the location of the modern state of Ohio, but also extended into areas of northern Kentucky, eastern Indiana, western Virginia and parts of western Pennsylvania -head of the serpent aligns with the summer solstice sunset, and the tail points to the winter solstice sunrise -because of this the people believe that the Native Americans might have used The Serpent Mound to mark time/seasons perhaps indicating when to plant harvest -it has been suggested that the curves of the body of the snake parallel lunar phases align with the two solstices and two equinoxes -Some people have interpreted the egg or eye shape at the head to be a representation of the sun.Another theory is that the shape of the serpent imitates the constellation Darco, with the pole star matching the placement of the first curve in the serpent's torso from the head -alignment of the pole star may indicate that the mound was used to determine true North and this served as a kind of a compass -they chose a snake as the form their animal for The Serpent mound because serpent mound might have also had a religious purpose -many native cultures in north and center also America valued snaked or revered snakes, attributing supernatural powers to the slithering reptiles -Late Testanian Period graves at the site suggest the earthwork served a mortuary function, and that this was the principal nature of the site, directing spirits of the dead from burial mounds and subsurface graves northward

City of Machu Picchu, With Observatory and Intihuatana Stone

Central highlands, Peru Inka 1450-1540 CE Granite (architectural complex) -the articulating center of its surroundings, a masterpiece of art, urbanism, architecture and engineering of the Inca Civilization -dry stone structures add rhythm and texture to the work, while the rigid and irregular landscape adds a stark green and unshapely contrast -a work of asymmetry and geometric shapes at the same time -hues and shades are greatly dichotomic with the light stone colors and the rich hues of the natural landscape -brick layers are laid down in predictable patterns (repetition) -the trapezoid is a very strong shape that would have created much more stability in an area with seismic activity such as the area Machu Picchu was built in in the Andes -an estate made to be used for ceremonies and celebration, and its intimacy with the earth is prevalent with the symbols the Incas took -a variety in the size and shapes of each building -The observatory: was adjacent to the royal residence, emphasizing the relationship between the elites, religious ritual, and astronomical observation -religious structures at Machu Picchu, emphasizing the Emperor's royal duties -two main parts: an upper curved stone enclosure with windows and niches placed in it, and a cave beneath this structure with masonry additions that hold more niches -also called Temple of the Sun, dedicated to Inti, sun god -used to calculate the June solstice -The Intihuatana ("hitching post of the sun") is a carved boulder located in the ritual area of the site, to the west of the main plaza -part of the Inka relationship with the earth, and expressions of belief in a landscape inhabited by supernatural forces -used to track the passage of the sun throughout the year -200 buildings are arranged on wide parallel terraces around a vast central square that is oriented east-west -Extensive terraces were used for agriculture and sophisticated channeling systems provided irrigation for the fields -1st zone: buildings dedicated to Inti -popular/residential district: where low class people lived -royalty area: residence for nobility -consensus among archaeologists that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate for his use as a retreat -used for 80 years before being abandoned, seemingly because of the Spanish conquests in other parts of the Inca Empire, most of its inhabitants died from smallpox -most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds -Every Inca citizen was assigned a very strict task in life, connected to their age, gender and social position -incredible builders and architects -Originally created for the first Inca emperor, Pachacuti Inka Yupanqui as a royal estate -chosen for its relationship to the Andean landscape, especially the mountain peaks, called Apus, which were considered ancestral deities throughout the Andes

City of Cusco, Including Qorikancha (main temple/church and convent of Santo Domingo) and Walls of Saqsa Waman (Sacsayhuaman) and City of Cusco plan

Central highlands, Peru Inka (or Inca) Empire 1440 CE Sandstone -Inca Empire, which was centered in what is now Peru,Bolivia, Ecuador and southern Colombia -One of the largest states in the world during the sixteenth century -ethnically and linguistically diverse empire held together by religion, an efficient bureaucracy and various forms of labor taxation -Plan: Looking at the plan of the Cusco city, we see this elongated structure and it resembles the shape of a puma or jaguar animal (sacred) -Qorikancha structure is in the "tail" of the puma, while Saqsa Waman was in the "head" -Qorikancha: The Qorikancha building was once covered in gold on the outside, which reflected light from the sun and made the shrine visible -thought to represent the sweat of the sun and the tears of the moon -a sense of unity as the stones are so compact -Walls of Saqsa Waman: Again we see the skilled manipulation of stones in the masonry work of these walls, but different from the stonework at Qorikancha, the stones are curved, different sizes, and quite imperfect -Meant to be part of a fortress that represented the head of the puma on the high plateau to the north of the city -The tail is where the two rivers that surround and flow through the city unite -strong appearance of solidity to represent the strength of the fortress, military and civilization -Qorikancha: Qorikancha, which translates to the "Golden House", was the most sacred shrine of the Incan Empire and was dedicated to the sun god, Inti -great importance to the Incan people because, even though they had many gods in their culture, they believed they descended from the sun so they cherished the sun god the most over the other gods -physical and spiritual focal point of the Empire -From this shrine radiated imaginary lines called ceques, which built this interconnected system of shrines in Cusco -maybe a landscape calendar, since the shrines were used throughout the year by different noble families holding rituals -radiating lines resembled the sun -originally started by the first Inca emperor Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, who had a mystical revelation that he was the divine king -made in the distinctive Inka trapezoid shape to tie it to the culture of the Empire and the doorways were double-jambed to signify the importance of the building -became the monastery and church of Santo Domingo -Walls of Saqsa Waman: The Saqsa Waman was the counterpart of the Qorikancha shrine from the lower region of the city -zig-zagging walls that overlooked the city and served as a fortress -reflected the skills of engineers as they were able to interlock the stones without the use of mortar -Cusco served as an axis mundi or center of existence for the civilization -reflection of Incan power as well as the class divisions of the Incan society -upper section (hanan) and a lower section (hurin), class distinctions -The city of Cusco was the capital of Tawantinsuyu, which translates from the Incan native language to English as the "Land of Four Quarters." This name became relevant for the city of Cusco because the city of Cusco was further divided into four regions that represented the four divisions of the Incan Empire -center of Spanish colonization for spreading Christianity in the Andean world -city of Cusco was a smaller version of the entire Inca Empire, which allowed the Incan rulers to display their power to shape and order that empire

Yaxchilan

Chiapas, Mexico Mayan 725 CE Limestone (architectural complex) -founded in the early classical period (250- 600 CE) and became a major center of Maya culture in the late classical period (600-900) -Structure 40: Very geometrical and utilizes the shape of a rectangle -the use of line is prominent here in the forming of geometric shapes -more removed from the main part of the city. It is decorated with steles of Bird Jaguar IV's rule -thought to be a sort of propaganda or just general advertising of Bird Jaguar IV's reign, power, and dynastic ties/royal lineage -Lintel 25: There is lots of movement in this high-relief -snake figure crawls all around the piece, twisting in strange directions before peering down at the kneeling figure -causes the viewer's eye to move around the piece, looking for recognizable parts of the scene, such as faces -geometrical aspect to the carving, as the snake seems not quite rounded, but almost as if it is made up of multiple squares/rectangles -depicts the hallucinations of Lady Xook, wife of Shield Jaguar II (Maya ruler) after her participation in a Bloodletting ritual -kneels on the ground looking up, her clothing and jewelry stained with blood -Above her is an imaginary snake, with a human head, may be Lady Xook herself, her husband, or an ancestor -an inscription with the date of Shield Jaguar II rise to power, making this a political as well as cultural image -Structure 33: on a raised platform and accessible by steps, there is emphasis on this structure due to its opposing nature -balance within this building with a sense of heaviness and groundedness due to the use of stones, and with 3 evenly spaced openings -extremely narrow and has a low ceiling, so it is not meant to hold many people -several niches and friezes, as well as the statue of a human (potentially Bird Jaguar IV (son of Shield Jaguar II) -roof-comb sits atop the building to make it seem taller than it actually is (was used purely for cosmetic purposes) -traditional for Mayan elites to participate in a bloodletting ceremony -required to puncture their body and shed blood -meant to be a show of a royal's devotion to the culture and people -also meant to show their respect for the gods, and mirror the myth that the gods themselves shed blood to create humans -celebratory practice after the birth of someone -believed this practice was needed to keep the universe balanced -incense burned during the ceremonies, and due to the fumes and blood loss, individuals participating were likely to hallucinate -Yaxchilan is located on the Usumacinta river, and was thus a trading hub -a major Mayan city center during the classical period. It was a center for trade, and a place of work and residency -used for political and cultural/religious purposes

Silver and gold maize cobs

Cuzco, Peru Inca 1400-1533 CE Sheet metal/repousee, gold and silver alloys -employs the use of repetition and rhythm, defining each of the pieces of corn to be life sized -emphasis on the piece with the contrast of the maize with the dark negative space -leaves of the corn on the cob appear to be much brighter than the actual corn -different levels of relief when creating this piece, as the corn kernels are shown in high relief, and the leaves of the corn are done in lesser amounts of relief -a ripened cob of corn breaking out and emerging from its husk -Incas created a life size garden in the Qorikancha- a significant temple of the Inca -consisted of vegetables, flowers, animals and people all made of gold and silver -also placed inside the temple as a decoration -emphasis on the importance of food sources (since it's made of precious metals) -Incas preferred naturalistic form of art, usually in small-scale, than abstract and geometric art -represents wealth and power of Inca civilization before the fall to the Spanish Empire -representative of how they harvested and of their maize beer (chicha) which was served at political feasts -created for the Qorikancha temple, in the capital city of Cuzco -important location for the piece because it was in the capital, so visitors to the temple would see the Incas power and control over all of the Andes -they valued agriculture, and corn was one of the most important crops for the Inca. As corn was a very important crop, the blacksmiths that created this piece used very important metals -supposed to be a ritual offering performed by the Inca government or state religious officials -offered to the sun god along with other objects of value such as metals or textiles -establish the Incan divine right to rule as it showed mastery over nature -later used by the Spanish as a source of wealth

Hide painting of Sun Dance

Eastern Shoshone, Wind River Reservation, Wyoming, U.S. 1890-1900 CE Painted elk hide -Attributed to Cotsiogo (Cadzi Cody-european name) -a member of the Eastern Shoshone tribe, painted many hides -During his lifetime, Cotsiogo was placed on the Wind River Reservation in central western Wyoming -Prior to their placement on the Wind River Reservation, the Shoshone moved with the seasons and the availability of natural resources -Color— was very important to hide paintings as for native Americans usually dyes and colors had to be made from natural sources -multicolored hide painting signified an advanced artist who had immense knowledge and access -Movement—Cotsiogo shows the characters as if they are in movement, dancing, hunting -Visual harmony which, naturally, was meant to evoke the spiritual harmony that traditional dances and festivals such as the Sun Dance were intended to evoke -near perfect vertical symmetry -Unity seen as animals are almost drawn together and connected by artist -emphasis on nature -hide paintings typically served to accompany oral history to help give imagery to historical events within a native american tribe -this specific hide painting was more so to depict idealized scenes of native american life that appealed to european tourists, such as buffalo hunting which was considered very desirable -depicts the Sun Dance (sacred) and the non-religious Wolf dance -sun dance involves surrounding a lowered buffalo head between two poles (split tree) with an eagle atop the split tree. Men dressed in feather bustles and headdresses dance around the poles which represents the grass dance -honored the creator deity for the earth's bounty and to ensure the bounty continued -return of warriors back to camp was reason for the celebratory wolf dance -tipis represent a home camp with accompanying headressed native americans highlighting their important status as headresses were limited only to the most honorable and powerful warriors -US government banned and outlawed the dance until 1935 -shown hunting with bows and arrows, but in reality shoshone men had used rifle for some time at this point in history -Buffalo imagery in this hide painting highlights the sacred nature of the animal to Native American culture and tribes -dismembered buffalo shows how they use all parts

Transformation mask

Kwakiutl, Northwest coast of Canada Late 19th century CE Wood, paint, and string -Kwakwaka'wakw people are the indigenous people of the northern Pacific Northwest coast -hunter gatherers with a heavy amount of fishing being done -birdlike exterior face; when opened it reveals a second human face in the interior -uses elements of the formline style, a term used to describe the characteristics of Northwest Coast visual culture -color palette displayed is mostly red, blue-green, and black -includes an undulating, calligraphic line. The ovoid shape, and the s and u (curvilinear shapes) forms are common features of the formline style -carved of red cedar wood, an important and common material used for many Northwest Coast objects and buildings -take months or years to make -Pulling the chords reveals an eagle's face and beak split down the center, and at the bottom the beak opens downward giving the impression of a bird spreading its wings -Ravens and eagles are culturally significant animals in this region. Raven is a trickster entity, oftentimes transforming himself he provides useful things to humans such as food, the sun, the moon -Thunderbirds are sometimes likened to eagles, and are said to cause thunder and lighting with their eyes and winds are able to transform into humans -manifest transformation, usually an animal changing into a mythical being or one animal becoming another -worn by dancers during ceremonies, they pull strings to open and move the mask -At the moment of transformation, the performer turns his back to the audience to conceal the action and heighten the mystery -Transformed, the mask reveals the face of an ancestor -often involving trickster supernaturals -Although these masks could be used at a potlatch, most often they were used in winter initiation rites ceremonies -accompanied by drumming and takes place in a big house -a belief by the Kwakiul tribe was that deceased ancestors reamed the world transforming themselves in the process, which entails the removal of their animal skins or masks and revealing their human self -potlatch, a ceremony where the host displayed his status, in part by giving away gifts to those in attendance -Potlatches were banned in 1885 until the 1950s because they were considered immoral by Christian missionaries that inferred that these masks were a sign of cannibalism -Canadian government mainly confiscated the masks as the labor force would be halted during ritual celebrations -Kwakiutl is divided into 4 clans: killer whale, eagle, raven and wolf clans

Bandolier bag

Lenape (eastern Delaware) tribe 1850 CE Beadwork on leather -bandolier had red trimming around the entire cloth with tassels at the end -floral blue, black green and pink pattern remained on the cloth, with the ends of the bandolier having trapezoidal extensions of colors with a similar manner -abstracted and symmetrical -Bandolier bag makers valued the element of texture and used various materials such as beads, silk, fringe, and leather to create a variety of textures in addition to the vibrant colors -Tiny glass beads called seed beads were acquired from European traders -bright colors are thought to have symbolized the celestial/sky and the underworld realms -abstracted designs on the sash may be read in relation to the cosmos because they branch in four directions (North, East, South, West), similar to how division of the empire was also in 4 -worn like a crossbody -women usually made these bags, men typically wore them -decorated with silk ribbons—also procured via trade with Europeans -helped people express group identities and social statuses -based on the bags that were carried by European soldiers who were armed with rifles -made by different tribes and first nations across the Great Lakes and Prairie regions which explains why they differ in appearance -Lenape tribe were part of the Delaware tribe or first Nation who lived along the Delaware River and parts of what is today New York State -Due to the events and laws like the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Lenape were forcibly removed from these ancestral lands and relocated to areas of Oklahoma, Wisconsin and Ontario, Canada -intended to complement men's ceremonial outfits -represent their power and authority -demonstrate the resilience and continued creativity of groups like the Lenape

Black-on-black ceramic vessel

Maria Montoya Martinez and Julian Martinez Tewa, Puebloan San Ildefonso Pueblo, New Mexico Mid-20th century CE Blackware ceramic -one of the best-known Native potters of the twentieth century due to her excellence as a ceramist and her connections with a larger, predominantly non-Native audience -importance to the Native art world by reframing Native ceramics as a fine art -geometric shapes on the vessel pay homage to the long tradition of geometric forms of the ancestral puebloans both in their ceramics and murals, but also an appeal to the Euro-American Art Deco style -dramatic shape along with the contrast of high polish and matte also illustrate the innovative processes -shape, color, and designs fit the contemporary Art Deco movement, emphasized geometric forms and bold colors -examined traditional Pueblo pottery styles and techniques to create pieces which reflect the Pueblo people's legacy of fine artwork and crafts -clay was found locally -used coiling technique -covered with a slip -covered with designs painted with an iron-rich solution using either pulverized iron ore or a reduction of wild plants called guaco -Avanyu design -features two design bands, one across the widest part of the pot and the other around the neck -abstract but suggest a bird in flight with rain clouds above, perhaps a prayer for rain that could be flown up to the sky -exaggerated due to the low rounded shapes of the pot -Many of Julian's decorations were patterns adopted from ancient vessels of the Pueblos -represented a shift from a purely utilitarian yet beautiful artwork to fine art -combination of both the age-old cultural traditions of the Puebloans and the innovations of the modern world -Maria also brought much economic prosperity to her community as she became nationally acclaimed -Making ceramics in the Pueblo was considered a communal activity -Throughout her career, she worked with different family members, including her husband Julian, her son Adam and his wife Santana, and her son Popovi Da

Ruler's feather headdress

Mexica (Aztec) 1428-1520 CE Feathers (quetzal and cotinga) and gold -probably of Motecuhoma II, the ninth tlatoani or ruler of the Aztec empire -also called the Penacho of Moctezuma II -Aztec empire emerged in the Valley of Mexico in the 13th and 14th centuries -depicts many curves and resembles a semi circle -illustrates very vivid colors such as an intense green, aqua blue, brown, and hints of gold -small plates of gold are in the shapes of circles and half moons -brought lots of attention to the wearer -verticality of the upright feathers enunciates the height and width of the headdress, mimicking the sun and its rays that came from the sun god -symmetry that creates a balance -made of more than 450 male Quetzal tail feathers (and cuckoo) -smallest feathers are from the Lady Cotinga blue bird -feathers were a sign of wealth and power -worn by the upper class, the ruling class, and the various gods and goddesses -religious connotation to gods because feathers came from birds, and only birds could fly, so they were closer to the gods -Wearing a feathered headdress was believed to bring those wearing it closer to the gods -the most revered Aztec god was Quetzalcoatl, the Creator God known as 'The Feathered Serpent' -Aztecs formed a disc in shape which represented the universe and the sky -reminded the Aztecs that they should be one with the universe -acquired by Austrian Archduke Ferdinand II. It was most likely sent to Europe from Mesoamérica by Hernán Cortés -late 19th Century, Austria established its first Museum of Natural History, where this headdress was displayed -Mexican government wanted the headdress to be returned as they felt it was important to their indigenous culture -made to showcase the power to the Aztec civilians that the gods and kings held -used by Moctezuma as he made his way into the civilian parts of the city-state to show his godly power -believed that Moctezuma gifted this headdress to the Spanish colonizer Hernán Cortés, which would ultimately cause the downfall of the Aztec Empire

Virgin of Guadalupe

Miguel Gonzalez Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City 1698 CE Oil on canvas on wood inlaid with mother of pearl -born in 1662 to a family of artists -incredibly skilled in the art of painting, and is considered a benchmark figure in the enconchado mother of pearl technique -Virgin Mary is surrounded by four rounders that tell the story of the Virgin of Guadalupe -Sense of balance, the background is plain and simple meant to emphasize the icon displayed -wears Mary's traditional clothes, including a blue cloak over her dress to represent the divinity -Golden stars adorn her cloak and a mandorla of light surrounds her -Twelve golden rays frame her face and head -ashen skin is correlated to the tradition in Spain, a black skinned madonna. "I am black but beautiful" shrouded in sunlight, stars on her cloak -standing on a moon supported by an angel -elaborate shell-inlaid frame that combines lavish floral motifs with symbols of the Litany of the Virgin -upper left is Juan Diego (saint) led to the Virgin Mary by angels -In the upper right, Jaun diego has a vision of the Virgin Mary at the Hill of Tepeyac, in the lower left Juan takes leave of the Virgin Mary with a full cloak, and in the lower right Juan Diego reveals the miraculous image on his cloak to the bishop and others -dove above the virgin represents the Holy Spirit -eagle refers to Aztec and the mythical founding of their capital city -Floral decorations in red and gold alternate with common symbols of the Virgin Mary that derive from the Song of Songs -the ladder to paradise, the ladder to which Mary's son ascends to heaven -Mary is seen on a ship to salvation -describes an event in which Mary appeared to Native Americans on a hill called Tepeyac, a shrine sacred to a pre-Colombian goddess -In 1531 Mary ordered a Native American convert, Juan Diego, to tell the local archbishop to build a sanctuary on this site; Mary addressed Juan Diego in Nuhuatl, his native tongue -construction of the shrine began after Guadalupe informed Juan Diego to gather Castilian roses, and when Juan opened his cloak before the Bishop roses miraculously spilled out of his cloak and there were imprints of Guadalupe on the roses -image of Guadalupe is related to the Immaculate Conception imagery which is drawn from the Book of Revelations and the Song of Songs. The book of revelations describes the woman of the apocalypse as a "clothed with the sun, with the moon under her feet and a crown of twelve stars under her head." -replaces native religions with Christianity

Mesa Verde Cliff Dwellings

Montezuma County, Colorado Ancestral Puebloan 450-1300 CE Sandstone -Ancestral Puebloan peoples, formerly known as the Anasazi, created some of the most remarkable structures still in existence today -built more than 600 structures into the cliff faces of the Four Corners region of the United States: the southwestern corner of Colorado, northwestern corner of New Mexico, northeastern corner of Arizona, and southeastern corner of Utah -dwellings depicted here are located aways from a larger site, called the Yellow Jacket Puebloan site where an estimated 600-1200 buildings once stood in a great plain -mostly residential but some were used for storage and ritual -in this one, there are 150 buildings with 20 kivas, ascending to the cliff above it diagonally -uniformity of these hundreds of cliff-embedded dwellings can be seen through their repetitious nature -a sense of symmetry and harmony as they display a similar shape -built into cliff faces around the four corner regions of the United States -the ancestral puebloans primarily used stone and mud mortar building up the structure against wooden beams formed to the natural splits of the cliff faces -a shift from the previously constructed adobe homes that were primarily adobe (clay, sand, straw, and sticks) -directly translates to "green table" which refers to these flat mountains that housed these dwellings -ancestral puebloans had retractable ladders to go up and down from the dwellings -made up a city of dwellings with a palace that had around 150 rooms and over 20 circular rooms -circular rooms were called kiva and they typically had a wood-beamed roof that was supported by support columns -shelf-like seating area that circumambulated the kiva -also a fire pit, ventilation shaft, and a sipapu (a small hole in the floor that historians believe to hold ceremonial purposes) -also evidence of murals-geometric in design with subject matter of animals and plants -ancestral puebloans were sedentary farmers (those that remained in the same place and harvested the three sister crops-corn, beans, squash) -in some cases different cultures would move away from their fields to be closer to a water source, but this was not the case for the ancestral puebloans -they were both farther from the water source and their harvesting area -purpose of this is unclear whether it was defensive, or they felt the natural protection of the cliffs, or the cliffs had ceremonial significance

Olmec-style mask

Olmecs, the earliest known settled civilization of Central America South Central Mexico 1200-400 BCE Jadeite -first major civilization in Mexico -Known for creating colossal heads, religious ceremonial centers as well as political, and raised earth mounds -Spirituality and appeasing the gods was the focus of these peoples. Wealth was found through trading, trading routes were found as far away as Costa Rica -a young face which can be inferred from having no teeth -features on the face of the mask are very symmetrical -shows how the Gods are perfect specimens and it is not possible for the humans to be as perfect -whoever is wearing the mask can take on the role of a deity for a short period of time -geometric -smaller than a normal sized face -jade, or greenstone believed to have had distinctive properties linked with fertility and procreation -jade was associated with growth, renewal, and rejuvenation after death -likely would have been worn as a pendant for someone trying to better their relationship with the gods -certain non-human characteristics, pointing to the idea that they represent a divine entity -considering jadeite was and is very valuable, it is likely that the mask was owned by someone of a higher status, e.g. priest or royal family -The cleft (mouth) is the Olmec symbol for corn, a crucial resource for the Olmec civilization at this time, and there was even a movement at one point in the Olmec civilization for a corn "God", based on the importance and value of the resource in the civilization -jaguar-like features, believed they contained elements of both human and animal as a powerful mythical being -believed that a union between a woman and a jaguar produced an earlier race of were-jaguars -Olmec art is very distinctive and clearly reflects their religion -Distinctly Olmec because of certain features like upturned lips, almond eyes, and a cleft in the head -Aztecs buried this mask and ritually buried them along with offerings which included ceramics, stone sculptures, obsidian blades, seashells and greenstone

All-T'oqapu tunic

Peru Inca 1450-1540 CE Camelid fiber and cotton -Bold use of colors such as red and indigo emphasize the high status of the person who would have worn this -Very geometric with the repetition of the squares -Repeating patterns and motifs seen throughout the tunic with some variety -very balanced as there is no one part of the tunic where the eye is focused and the equal sized squares bring unity and harmony -contrast as the greater regions of the tunic are orange yet the spots of lighter and darker colors contrast the general color of the piece -usually done on backstrap looms made from a series of sturdy sticks supporting the warp, or skeletal threads, of the textile. A backstrap loom is tied to a post or tree at one end, while the other end is attached to a strap that passes around the back of the weaver -textiles were produced by a number of groups -the finest cloth, called qompi in Quechua (the language of the Incas), was produced by acllas ("chosen women") -dyed and wove cotton and alpaca fibers -T'oqapu refers to the square geometric motifs -only to be worn by the high status officials -specific designs can relate to people, places or roles in Incan culture -this one most likely worn by an Inca ruler, called Sapa Inca -bright colors, elaborate designs all reflect his role as a ruler, his ability to command taxes from the people, being able to afford luxury goods, and the weaving of the experts -colors are especially important because there are some dyes, such as indigo seen in this tunic, which were harder to obtain than others -black and white checkered design, which was a motif often worn by the Inca military -driving force of the expansion of this empire was its exchange of high status goods, such as shells, precious metals, and textiles -even more valued than gold or gems

Templo Mayor (Main Temple), The Coyolxauhqui Stone, Calendar Stone

Tenochtitlan, Modern Mexico City, Mexico Aztec 1375-1520 CE reconstruction drawing, volcanic stone, basalt -Aztecs referred to themselves as Mexica. In their religion, sacrifice was very much prevalent, especially human sacrifice -Templo Mayor: Very geometric with little to no curved lines -Repetition with the layering of the stone pyramids for each new ruler -Emphasis on the top two temples for deities with how the pyramidal shape leads up to them -Balance is created with the two halves of the temple being symmetrical to each other -made of stone masonry, and there are 7 temples in total that have been covered as the rulers changed -Every time a new ruler reigned, the previous temple would have been filled with stone rubble and covered with a final layer of stucco and decorated like how the last temple was -stood in what was once the most sacred precinct of the Aztec empire, surrounded by many other buildings which were constructed for worshiping deities -destroyed and buried by Spanish colonists -a twin temple devoted to the 2 main deities whom the Aztecs worshiped: Huitzilopochtli, the sun and war god, and Tlaloc, the agriculture and rain god -a huge double staircase that steeply rose to the two temples -a stone altar to the right of both staircases and a chacmool, which was a sculpture of a man on his back with a bowl on his belly -much of what was part of the sacred precinct lies under Mexico City and the new buildings that were built on top over time -center of the sacred precinct, and all of the building's placements reflected how Aztecs thought of the world as having 4 quadrants -Hernan Cortes, the Spanish conqueror who defeated the Aztecs arrived in New Spain in 1519 and he and his men were very impressed with the beauty they saw in Tenochtitlan -Many buildings that were built on top of the sacred precinct used the materials that the Templo Mayor was made of -Many of the sculptures that the Spanish got hold of were turned into Christian sculptures or symbols -The Coyolxauhqui Stone: Little negative space makes the scene look very busy and chaotic -beheaded woman being in the center emphasizes her as the main subject. Both linear and curved forms and lines to show the different subjects, however, contrast between the woman and the surrounding beings due to the woman being made of mostly curved lines -Aztec goddess Coyolxauhqui, sister of the patron deity, Huitzilopochtli -golden bells that were painted on her cheeks, feathers and ornaments adorning her hair, she wears elaborate earrings, fancy bracelets and sandals, and wears a serpent belt with a skull attached to the back -surrounded by monsters that can be connected to other female deities of trouble and chaos -naked with sagging breasts and a stretched stomach -decapitated, dismembered -a myth where Coyolxauhqui's mother, Coatlicue, became pregnant one day, which made Coyolxauhqui angry. She got together with her 400 brothers and led an attack against their mother. At this moment, Huitzilopochtli emerged, fully covered in armor and defeated Coyolxauhqui and her brothers in order to protect his mom -threw Coyolxauhqui down Coatepec, the mountain where this happened, causing her body to break -placed at the bottom of the Templo Mayor which essentially transforms it into Coatepec -rituals involving human sacrifice are carried out similarly -Calendar Stone: Many patterns in all of the bands that make up the entire stone -rhythm is conveyed through the patterns and repetition -emphasis on the central figure -Unity is conveyed through the entire piece since it is a circular shape -very center, there is a face with deep hollow eyes and a wide mouth with the tongue sticking out -large ear spools hanging down from its ears -clawed hands possibly holding human hearts -associate this figure with the sun god, Tonatiuh -4 squares surrounding the central figure. On the band outside the 4 squares are the 20 days of the Aztec calendar. Outside of that, the rays of the sun can be seen radiating outwards into the 4 cardinal directions. On the very outer band there are two serpents whose heads meet at the bottom center, creating a face -shows the history of the previous eras and the present era, which was the 5th -4 squares meant to be read from the top right square in a counterclockwise direction. So the 1st era or sun is Jaguar, then Wind, then Rain, and finally Water -Each square also represents a deity, and what the people will die of -5th sun is prophesying that the current world will be destroyed by earthquakes, makes sense because it was built on a fault line surrounded by volcanoes -theme of sacrifice since 2 gods killed themselves to make the world so people continue the tradition to honor

Chavin de Hauntar

The Chavin People. Northern Highlands, Peru 900-200 BCE Granite, gold -Chavin civilization was centered on the site of Chavin de Huantar, the religious center of the Chavin people and the capital of the Chavin culture -Plan: plan of the Chavin temple resembles that of a Greek Acropolis, or the areas where the pyramids were located in Egypt -geometric and organized, not very symmetric -2 sections. An old, and a new temple -within the temple are these things called "galleries", which are multiple tunnels with vents but no windows -sound functions in the galleries are interesting, as someone could speak through a gallery, and their voice would reach to anyone around the temple, making it possible for it to sound or look as if the temple itself was speaking -Stela: tall structure, and it depicts a deity, unproportionate -Carved onto the figure are curved lines that depict the face of the deity pictured on the stela, create a sense of depth -repetition of patterns and shapes -modeled after a deity in the Chavin culture, and is also known as the "Great Spear'' Stela -fits an agricultural tool better than a spear -people likely worshiped this deity in hopes of a bountiful harvest -large sharp fangs and talons -torso, arms and legs slightly resembling that of a human -right arm is pointed upwards, pointing towards the heavens, signifying the deity's "godhood". Its left arm is pointed downwards, towards the Earth -a series of channel's inside of the actual stele, which indicates that worshippers could put water inside the stele in some sort of practice -Relief: most notable thing about the Chavin relief is the amount of repetition present -repetition of patterns, and there are repetitions of certain features, and especially in this relief, there is a repetition of certain animal features, that may be attributed to any deities the Chavin people worshiped -looks as if this head design repeats, until it meets one that is moving in its direction -two head side profiles that face each other, seem to create one completed head in the end -Ornament: symmetrical, curved lines and forms, at the bottom of the ornament is a repetition of circular shapes, the eyes of snakes -a snake motif, with the left and right side depicting the exact same snake head -many cultures that use this sort of nose ornament that goes through the nostrils -worn by higher up individuals within the civilization to show their status -Chavin people are some of the earliest South American civilizations to show this sort of culture -may be some or the originators of South American culture in terms of the art and patterns they created -speculated that the word Chavin comes from the word Caupin, which means "center" -most likely that the Chavins didn't created the religion and art motifs, but they may have expanded and popularized it to a grand scale

Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza (The founding of Tenochtitlan)

Viceroyalty of New Spain 1541-1542 CE Ink and color on paper -Culture: people who lived in the city that cortés found were then rulers of Mexico, their rise to power was swift, nomadic people lived on the shores of the mythological Lake Aztlan, they called themselves Mexica -At the urging of their patron God they migrated then ended at Lake Texcoco, with a series of alliances and royal marriages the Aztecs gained power and expanded -images were annotated by a Spanish priest who spoke and understood the aztec language of Nahuatl -differed from the progression in Europe, when there would be Renaissance realistic depictions and ornate decorations, this depiction has more of a 2D shape to it -flatter people -intersection of the canals of Tenochtitlan makes all lines point towards the center where the focal point is the Eagle atop the cactus sprouting from the rock, the defining event that founded Tenochtitlan -Aztec military figures shown physically larger and above the defeated enemies to show their dominance -large amount of varying colors was significant of wealth and success since it was rare -information about the organization and foundation of the Aztec Capital, Tenochtitlan, which means place of the prickly pear cactus from rock -According to myth, the patron deity of Tenochtitlan told the Aztecs to leave their original home and found a new one where they saw a eagle atop a cactus growing from rock (also Mexico's flag) -Above the eagle there is a temple, as religion was very important -war shield and skull symbolize possible military conflict on The Valley -agriculture showing the land's fertility -shows the general schematics for the city mirroring cardinal directions of the "universe" -Ten men are depicted on the front, representing the men who led the Aztecs to Tenochtitlan, One man closest to the eagle has gray skin and a bloody ear for ritual -Commissioned by Antonio de Mendoza, the very first viceroy of New Spain -to record information about the Aztec Empire -information about the lords and leaders of Tenochtitlan (the center of the aztec empire), tribute paid to the aztecs, and a yearly general account of life in New Spain -intended for the codex to be sent to Spain to essentially give a summary and account of how the colonies were doing in the "New World" for the King of Spain. However the Codex had a long journey where it was intercepted by French Pirates, making it eventually end up in France -serve as an account of life in new Spain for the Spanish King