Chapter 17: The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment
Pierre Bayle
A French Protestant philosopher who advocated for religious tolerance and believed the existence of multiple religions would help the state (1647-1706)
Bernard de Fontenelle
A French author who disseminated works on scientific topics during the Enlightenment (1657-1757)
Johann Sebastian Bach
A German composer and musician of the Baroque period (1685-1750)
Immanuel Kant
A German philosopher and the central figure of the Enlightenment; he argued that the fundamental concepts of the human mind construct the human experience (1724-1804)
Adam Smith
A Scottish philosopher who wrote the Wealth of Nations, which enunciated three basic principles of economics: free trade, value of labor, and noninterference from government (1723-1790)
Sephardic jews
A group of Jews expelled from Spain in the 15th century; many of whom migrated to Turkish lands, and some of them had settled in cities where they were relatively free to participate in the banking and commercial activities that Jews had practiced since the Middle Ages
Novel
A literary genre that became much more popular in the 18th century; a genre with no established rules and very open to experimentation
Voltaire
A middle-class Frenchman who advocated for religious tolerance, deism, and the natural philosophy of Newton (1694-1778)
Henry Fielding
A novelist who wrote about people without scruples who survived by their wits (1707-1754)
Samuel Richardson
A printer by trade and later writer who wrote Pamela, a famous novel that appealed to the growing cult of sensibility in the 18th century (1689-1761)
Franz Joseph Haydn
A prominent and prolific Austrian composer of the Classical period (1732-1809)
Mari-Jean de Condorcet
A victim of the Reign of Terror who was in hiding while writing The Progress of the Human Mind, which stated that human perfectibility is in reality indefinite (1743-1794)
Baron Paul d'Holbach
A wealthy German aristocrat and uncompromising atheist who preached a doctrine of strict atheism and materialism
Romanticism
An intellectual movement that dominated Europe at the beginning of the 19th century; The movement focused on the balance between heart and mind, between sentiment and reason
John Wesley
An ordained Anglican minister who experienced a deep spiritual crisis and underwent a mystical experience; he preached to the masses and appealed to the lower classes (1703-1791)
Neoclassicism
Artistic movement that emerged in France in the late 18th century; movement that recaptured the dignity and simplicity of classical style of ancient Greece and Rome
Joseph II
Austrian ruler who passed the Toleration Patent of 1781, which recognized Catholicism's public practice, granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately
Economic liberalism
Belief in organizing the economy on individualist and voluntarist lines, and the greatest possible number of economic decisions are made by individuals
George Frederick Handel
British Baroque composer who spent the bulk of his career in London, becoming well known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, and organ concertos (1685-1759)
Mary Astell
Daughter of wealthy English coal merchant; she advocated for better education for woman and marriage quality (1666-1731)
Diderot
French atheist who wrote the Encyclopedia and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment (1713-1784)
Jacques-Louis David
French neoclassical painter who stayed away from the frivolity of the Rococo style and focused on severity and austerity (1748-1825)
Montesquieu
French nobleman who advocated for natural laws, abolition of slavery, and religious tolerance; he wrote the The Spirit of the Laws , which illustrated the merits of the separation of power (1689-1755)
Jean-Jacques Rousseou
French philosopher who paid his schooling by becoming a paid lover to an older woman; he wrote the Discourse, which stated that the government is a necessary evil and celebrated the ideals of the social contract and the general will (1712-1778)
Philosophe
French term referring to the intellectuals of the Enlightenment
Balthasar Neumann
German Baroque-Rococo architect and military engineer (1687-1753)
Pietism
German response to desire for a deeper personal devotion to God that began in the 17th century by a group of German clerics who wished their religion to be more personal
Protestant revivalism
Increased spiritual interest or renewal in the life of a church congregation or society
Cesare Beccaria
Italian philosophe who argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents, not as exercises of brutality; he wrote On Crimes and Punishments (1738-1794)
Francois Quesnay
Leading physiocrat and French court physician who claimed they would discover the natural economic laws that governed human society; he believed land is the basis of wealth, not money (1694-1774)
Antoine Watteau
Rococo artist who reflected the upper-class life and the element of interior sadness (1684-1721)
David Hume
Scottish philosopher and pioneering social scientist who studied economics (1711-1776)
Jesuit Order
Society of Jesus, which is a male religious congregation of the Catholic Church that focused on education; they were reluctantly dissolved in 1773 by Clement XIV under the demand of Spain and France when the order got too politically involved in the New world
Ashkenazic Jews
The largest group of jews who lived in eastern Europe; they were restricted in movement, forbidden to own land or hold many jobs, forced to pay burdensome special taxes, and also subject to periodic outbursts of popular wrath
High culture
The literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling classes
Religious skepticism
The questioning of religion by some Europeans who sees religion as a hindrance to scientific and social developments
Popular culture
The written and unwritten lore of the masses, most of which is passed down orally
James Cook
a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy who made detailed maps and wrote about new lands such as Australia and the Hawaiian Islands (1728-1779)
Enlightenment
a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition
Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf
a German religious and social reformer and bishop of the Moravian Church who spread the teachings of pietism; he focused on the mystical experience and rejected rationalism in religion
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
a child prodigy and prolific and influential composer of the Classical era who could not find a patron and died with a massive debt (1756-1791)
Methodism
a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley
Baroque music
a heavily ornamented style of music composed from approximately 1600 to 1750, which came out of the Renaissance
Gymnasium
a type of school stemmed from German-speaking lands with a strong emphasis on academic learning, and providing advanced secondary education
Laissez-faire
abstention by governments from interfering in the workings of the free market
Rococo
an 18th-century artistic movement and style that focused on ornate and used light colors, asymmetrical designs, curves, and gold; a less strict and more playful style than Baroque
Mary Wollstonecraft
an English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights who wrote Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1759-1797)
Salons
elegant drawing rooms in the urban houses of the wealthy where philosophers and guests meet to engage in ideas of the philosophes
Classical music
music written in the European tradition during a period lasting approximately from 1750 to 1830, when forms such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata were standardized
Pogroms
organized massacre of Jews in Russia or eastern Europe; this made Jewish existence precarious and dependent on the favor of their territorial rulers
Parish church
the basic administrative unit of episcopal churches in England; parochial church
Cosmopolitanism
the ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
Cultural relativism
the principle that an individual human's beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual's own culture (what many people today fail to understand, smh)