Chapter 19
Adaptation
A trait that improves an individual's fitness
What happens to the air pressure as you move from the troposphere to the exosphere?
Air pressure and density decreases as it becomes farther from earth, given the weaker gravitation pull on molecules at greater distances from earth.
Mesosphere
Altitude:60-100 km, temperature decreasing with weaker gravitational pull from earth. Mesopause-the boundary in the earth's atmosphere between the mesosphere and the thermosphere, at which the temperature stops decreasing with increasing height and begins to increas
Cap and trade
An approach to controlling CO2 emissions, where a cap places an upper limit on the amount of pollutant that can be emitted and trade allows companies to buy and sell allowances for a given amount of pollution.
Kyoto Protocol
An international agreement to reduce global emissions of greenhouse gases from all industrialized countries to 5.2 percent below their 1990 levels by 2012. 1977 representatives of the nations of the world convened in Kyoto, Japan to discuss control of emissions contributing to global warming in the KP: global emissions ofGHG from all industrialized countries will be reduced to 5.2 % below 1990 levels by 2012. Special circumstances, political climate, etc; countries agree to different levels of emission restrictions including a 7% decrease for the US, 8% decrease for European Union, 0% for Russia. China and India are without these restrictions as they are still considered developing countries, thus unfairly exposed to global warming consequences of developed nations prior to 1990s. In effort to reduce emissions: increase fuel efficiency (swich from FF to reneweable/nucelar), increase carbon sequestration in storing emissions in agric soil, retiring agric. land, and allowing it to become pasture/forest (returning atmospheric carbon to the plants carbon), compress CO2 from air and store it/pump it into oil wells (abandoned) or deep ocean
Thermohaline circulation
An oceanic circulation pattern that drives the mixing of surface water and deep water
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
Around the equator, there is a zone of dense clouds, intense thunderstorms and heavy rainfall. The zone follows the sun's most direct rays and thus moves up and down across the equator (See picture for location in July versus January). This creates a pattern of SEASONAL PRECIPITATION in the tropics
How are polar bears impacted by the melting of the polar ice cap and what impact will this have on the rest of the Arctic ecosystem
As the polar ice caps melt, polar bears lose habitat, ice caps become too small and retreat from the land-preventing the polar bears from hunting and reaching the seals. With shorter time that polar bears are able to hunt for seals, male polar bears have half their average weight from 30 years ago and now, are at risk of extinction. Seal species would increase dramatically without predators, foxes would lack food as they consumed the dead carcasses of seal, native culture and resources would dwindle.
which of the following best describes general pattern of CO2 levels over the last 400,000 years. Circle one below: (19.13)
CO2 levels have fluctuated over the last 400,000 years but never rose above 300 ppm until recently
Which GHG listed in Table 19.1 has the greatest impact on the greenhouse effect? Why?
Carbon Dioxide because its concentration is so much higher than others and forces policy makers to prioritize its reduction.
What are some ways to measure historical temperature levels? CO2 levels?
Change in the species composition of organisms (foraminifera, marine organisms with hard shells resisting decay after death in sediment layers that can be used to infer ocean temp. at time sediment was deposited), examine ancient ice (compressed under Himalayas layers of snow or bubbles in ice holding atmospheres (ice cores)), oxygen levels in ice cores (isotopes of )-16, not heavy O-18 (warmer temp have more heavy O and percentage shows temp). CO2 can be measured with air bubbles in ice cores
Clorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chemical found in refrigerants of freezers, air conditioners, refrigerators and have been found to cause Ozone layer depletion. In 1996, the Montreal Protocal phased out CFC production, but most alternative refrigerants not harmful to the ozone like a group of gases called hydrochlorofluorocarbons still have very high greenhouse warming potentials. As a result, developed countries will phase out HCFCs by 2030
Which GHG listed in Table 19.1 has the largest global warming potential? the highest concentration?
Chlorofluorocarbons have the higher global warming potential and the highest concentration is CO2
Climate
Climate is the average weather that occurs in a given region over a long period (often decades), precipitation, temperature, humidity
Water circulation
Cold water is MORE dense than warm water and thus SINKS Warm water is LESS dense than cold water and thus RISES Fresh water is LESS dense than salt water and thus RISES Salt water is MORE dense than fresh water and thus SINKS
Methane (CH4)
Decomposition under high-oxygen conditions, dead organic matter converts to CO2, but w/o enough oxygen available to produce CO2, methane is made. At the bottom of wetlands (where plants and animals decompose), digestion (with oxygen deprived bacteria).
Coriolis effect
Deflection of an object's path due to Earth's rotation
Why do developed countries have to reduce CO2 levels more than developing countries under the Kyoto Protocol?
Developing countries are unfairly exposed to the consequences of global warming that in large part come from the developed nations. Poor countries have contributed to 1% of historic carbon emissions, so countries that emit most pay the most in costs to reduce Co2.
ENSO (el nino southern oscillation)
Every 3-7 years, surface currents in the Pacific ocean reverse and trade winds near S America weaken. This weakening allows warm equatorial water from the W Pacific to move eastward toward the west coats of S America. The movement of warm water to S America suppresses upwelling off Peru coast and decreases productivity and fish populations. It can last up to weeks or years and periodic changes in winds and ocean currents are collectively ENSO. The global impact of ENSO is cooler, wetter conditions the SE United States and dry S Africa and SE Asia
What were the environmental impacts of the flooding in Kenya?
Flood villages, roads and bridges, 70 people die, abandon/displaced homes, mudslides damage water treatment plant and pipes, disrupt water supplies, cost victims clothing, food, and water, cholera and other disease spread.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
GHG that contributes to global warming in high concentrations. Charles David Keeling improve Co2 concentration measurements and looked at human causes. In 1958, he found the seasons fluctuate Co2 concentrations and also is connected to human FF combustion and net destruction of vegetation. In spring, more plants are there to absorb CO2 and photosynthesize and in fall, leaves fall and water bodies cool; less absorption. China, US, Russia, India and Japan put out the most millions of CO2 metric tons. Australia, US, Canada, Saudi Arabia, and Russia put out the most CO2 metric ton per capita.
Global warming potential (greenhouse warming potential)
GWP of a gas estimates how much a molecule of any compound can contribute to global warming over a period of 100 yrs relative to a molecule of CO2. Considers amount of infrared energy that a given gas can absorb and how long a molecule of gas can remain in the atmosphere.
Global cooling
Global climate change in the form of declining average temperatures
What is the difference between global climate change and global warming?
Global climate change is the changes in the climate of earth-the average weather that occurs in an area over a period of years or decades. Global warming refers specifically to one aspect of climate change: the warming of the oceans, landmasses and atmosphere of earth.
Latent heat release Properties
Going from a liquid to a gas is called Condensing and RELEASES heat energy. Going from a gas to a liquid is called Evaporation REQUIRES heat energy.
Thermohaline circulation:
If currents change, distribution of heat on earth will be disrupted. In thermohaline circulation, a deep ocean circulation is driven by water that comes out of the Gulf of Mexico and moves up to Greenland (where it becomes colder and saltier). The sinking water mixes with deep waters of the ocean basin, resurfaces near the equator and goes back to the Gulf of Mexico. Circulating warm water from the Gulf of Mexico up to Europe, moving cold water from the North Atlantic down to the equator
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
In 1988, the United Nations and the World Meteorological Organization created the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a group of more than 3000 scientists from around the world working together to assess the climate change. They attempt to understand global warming system, the effects of climate change on diversity, energy and econ/social effects on climate change. IPCC enables scientists to assess and communicate the state of our knowledge and to suggest research directions for improving our future
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
In 1996, the Montreal Protocol phased out CFC production, but most alternative refrigerants not harmful to the ozone like a group of gases called hydrochlorofluorocarbons still have very high greenhouse warming potentials. As a result, developed countries will phase out HCFCs by 2030
What efforts has the US made to regulate CO2 emissions?
In 2007, the Supreme Court rules the US EPA had authority to regulate GHG, take part in the Clean Air Act, in 2009 the EPA announced beginning the regulation of GHG for first time, 2010 EPA looks closer at regulating CO2 emissions, increase in fuel-efficiency requirements in US for automobiles/manufacturers (30% decrease of CO2 will be as a result)
The greenhouse effect (Figure 19.2)
Incoming solar radiation is composed of UV and VISIBLE LIGHT. 1/3 of the incoming radiation is reflected by ATMOSPHERE, CLOUDS and SURFACE OF PLANET. The rest of the solar radiation is absorbed by clouds or the earth's surface. The solar radiation is converted to heat which warms the earth. The surface of the earth then radiates the heat back into the atmosphere as INFRARED RADIATION. The infrared radiation (also known as heat) is either ABSORBED BY GHGs or EMITTED INTO SPACE. When greenhouse gases (GHGs) absorb infrared radiation, the planet is WARMER. The (circle one) MORE GHGs there are in the atmosphere, the warmer the planet will be.
what four things are likely to occur as a result of global climate change?
Increased storm intensity, altered patterns of precipitation and temperature, altered pattern of ocean circulation, global warming.
ITCZ
Intertropical convergence zone, an area of Earth that receives the most intense sunlight where the ascending branches of the two Hadley cells converge
When (and why) does Kenya usually experience heavy rainfall?
Kenya (on the equator) experiences rainfall in April and May (not march like in America), as a result to the sun passing over the earth creating water vapor and clouds to form and rainclouds continue to move north and drop additional rain in NE Kenya.
Density Properties
Less dense air RISES More dense air SINKS Cold air is MORE dense than warm air and thus SINKS Warm air is LESS dense than cold air and thus RISES
GHG + natural gases
Methane - Dead matter (decomposition), bottom of wetlands (plants and animal decompose there), digestion, termites Nitrous oxide -wet soils, at bottom of lacks, lands, and oceans. Water vapor - Evaporation of water from land and water bodies, and evapotranspiration from plants.
What are the main anthropogenic sources of the GHGs below?
Methane - Livestock digestion, landfills, natural gas/petroleum, coal mining, manure management, combustion, rice cultivation, etc. Nitrous oxide - Agricultural soils, combustion, nitric acid production, manure management, etc Carbon dioxide - Fossil fuel energy, fossil fuel not for energy, iron/steel production, cement manufacturing, accidental leaks of NG, municipal solid waste combustion
Methane hydrates
Methane hydrate is a cage-like lattice of ice inside of which are trapped molecules of methane, the chief constituent of natural gas. If methane hydrate is either warmed or depressurized, it will revert back to water and natural gas.
Water vapor
Most abundant GHG in atmosphere and contributor to global warming and found in the hydrologic cycle. Water vapor is produced when liquid water from land and water bodies evaporates and by evapotranspiration of plants, but evaporation varies with climate and atmosphere water vapor amounts.
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
N20 is a natural component of the nitrogen cycle from denitrification at low-oxygen level environments of wet soils and at bottoms of lakes, lands, and oceans. Environments convert nitrates into nitrous oxide gas (GHG).
Albedo
Percentage of incoming light that is reflected from a surface
Describe the role do polar bears play in the Arctic? Include ways other organisms depend on the polar bear.
Polar bears hunt seals that come up for air in holes of the ice, seal carcasses left are consumed by other animals and polar bears supply natives with food and fur clothing
How can China be a leading producer of CO2 but have relatively low per capita production? (See Figure 19.8)
Populations of China are so large, on a per capita basis, they rank as 16th and 20th to leading CO2 emitters.
What happened in Northern Kenya at the same time?
Prolonged drought led to crop failure, starvation, lack of livestock, and susceptibility to disease
How many degrees Celsius are average global temperatures expected to rise by 2100
Rise by 1.8 C to 2 C (3.2 F- 7.2 F)
Why do CO2 levels fluctuate during a single year?
Seasons fluctuate Co2 concentrations and they are also connected to human FF combustion and net destruction of vegetation. In spring, more plants are there to absorb CO2 and photosynthesize and in fall, leaves fall and water bodies cool; less absorption About how much (in ppm) have CO2 levels risen since 1960? Nearing 70 ppm
Soil sequestration
Storing carbon in agric. soil or retiring agric. land and allowing it to become pasture or forest, both returning carbon from atmosphere long-term into the ground as plant biomass and soil carbon.
List the 5 factors drive the ocean currents?
Temperature (differential heating), gravity, prevailing winds, Coriolis effect and locations of the continent
CAFE Standards
The Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)standards are regulations in the United States, first enacted by the United States Congress in 1975, after the 1973-74 Arab Oil Embargo, to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks produced in the United States.
Global climate change
The changes in the climate of earth-the average weather that occurs in an area over a period of years or decades: Increased storm intensity, altered patterns of precipitation and temperature, altered pattern of ocean circulation, global warming
What causes the seasons?
The earth's axis tilted 23.5 degrees, the latitude that receives the most direct rays of the sun and most hours of daylight changes throughout the year. The earth's orbit around the sun to lead to regions of the world to experience seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation. 6 months between September and March equinox, the N Hemisphere tilts away from the sun
Greenhouse effect
The high energy radiation from the sun strikes the atmosphere, 1/3 is reflected from the atm., clouds, and surface of the planet. Much of the high-energy ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer where it is converted to low-energy infrared radiation. The remaining ultraviolet radiation and visible light strikes the land and water of the Earth where it is converted into low-energy infrared radiation. The infrared radiation radiates back to the atm., where it is absorbed by the GHG that radiates much of it back to the surface of the earth and the process warms the earth.
Stratosphere
The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere, extending roughly 16 to 50 km (10-31 mi) above the surface of earth
Global warming
The warming of the planet's land, air, and water, increased heat waves, reduce cold spells.
List the 5 major processes that drive climate on earth
Unequal heating of Earth, atmospheric convection currents, rotation of the earth, Coriolis effect, earth's orbit on a tilted axis, and the circulation of ocean waters at the surface and deep ocean.
What impact do volcanoes have our global climate?
Volcanoes let out CO2 and ash which is emitted into the atmosphere and reflect incoming solar radiation back into space (cooling the earth). The reduction of the radiation striking the earth causes .5 degree C or .9 F decline in temperature on the surface of the planet.
Saturation Properties
Warm air holds MORE water than cold air, so as air temperature INCREASES the saturation point increases. When air cools, the saturation point DECREASES resulting in water vapor condensing into liquid water, clouds form, precipitation
Rain shadow
Warm, dry air on the leeward side of mountains' range form this kind of region. Soil sequestration- Storing carbon in agric. soil or retiring agric. land and allowing it to become pasture or forest, both returning carbon from atmosphere long-term into the ground as plant biomass and soil carbon
Which GHG listed in Table 19.1 is least impacted by humans? Why?
Water vapor because human activity has little effect on it in the atmosphere and occurs naturally with the hydrologic cycle and within land/water bodies that have evaporation or plants with evapotranspiration.
What is the difference between weather and climate. Define each one and give 2 examples of each.
Weather occurs on a time scale from seconds to days. Climate is the average weather that occurs in a given region over a long period (often decades). Weather: thunderstorm, hurricane Climate: temperature, precipitation average over a long time period
Adiabatic cooling
When air rises, the pressure DECREASES which causes the volume to INCREASES which DECREASES the temperature
Adiabatic heating
When air sinks, the pressure INCREASES which causes the volume to DECREASES which INCREASES the temperature
Adiabatic heating and cooling Properties
When air sinks, the pressure INCREASES which causes the volume to DECREASES which INCREASES the temperature. This is called adiabatic heating. When air rises, the pressure DECREASES which causes the volume to INCREASES which DECREASES the temperature. This is called adiabatic cooling
What patterns are observed in the size of the polar ice cap
With warmer air, the polar ice caps are melting, shrinking, and retreating away from the land.
Interglacial periods
a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age. The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene, about 11,700 years ago.
What are the three main causes of uneven warming of the earth? Briefly explain each one Variation in the amount of surface area over which the Sun's rays are distributed
a perpendicular angle of the sun's rays in the tropics cause solar energy to be distributed over a smaller surface area than at higher altitudes. Tropics receive more solar energy per square meter than polar/mid-altitude regions.
Thermopause
atmospheric boundary of Earth's energy system, located at the top of the thermosphere. Below this, the atmosphere is defined to be active on the insolation received, due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monatomic oxygen.
Polar cells
convection cell in the atmosphere, formed by the air that rises at 60 degrees N and 60 degree S and sinks at the poles, 90 degree N and 90 degree S
Glacial periods
interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods. The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago.
Mitigation
is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate (lessen in harm) the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with harmful processes
Saturation pt
maximum amount of water vapor that can be in the air at a given temperature
What are the three main causes of uneven warming of the earth? Briefly explain each one Some areas of Earth reflect more solar energy than others
percent of sun light reflected on a surface is its albedo. The higher the albedo of a surface, the more solar energy it reflects and less it absorbs. White reflects more than black which absorbs: green foliage of tropics albedo is 10-20. Snow covered polar reflects 80-95. Average earth albedo is 30%.
What are the three main causes of uneven warming of the earth? Briefly explain each one Variation in the angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth:
sun strikes the region nearest to the sun at a perpendicular angle and travels a shorter distance to the tropics. In polar/mid-latitude regions, sun's ray is more oblique. The sun rays lose less solar energy in short distances.
Tropopause
the interface between the troposphere and the stratosphere
Stratopause
the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers: the stratosphere and the mesosphere
Thermosphere
the region of the atmosphere above the mesosphere and below the height at which the atmosphere ceases to have the properties of a continuous medium. The thermosphere is characterized throughout by an increase in temperature with height.
Upwelling
the upward movement of ocean water toward the surface as a result of diverging currents.
Upwellings and pros to them
the west coasts of most continents has surface currents diverge, or separate from one another, causing deeper waters to rise and replace the water that has moved away (upward movement). The deep waters contain nutrients from the ocean bottom that support large pop. of producers who support large pop. of fish (for fisheries).
Why has the US not ratified the Kyoto Protocol? (there are a couple of reasons)
-Too much uncertainty in global warming predictions -Costs of controlling carbon dioxide emissions would unfairly disadvantage businesses in the US while China and India had no reduction requirements (developing countries without significant emissions prior to 1990) -Limiting GHG should wait until there is more scientific evidence -US argues all countries should have emission limits (otherwise polluting factories could relocate into the developing world), and profits gained from manufacturing new pollution-control technologies -Savings in fuel costs through greater efficiency will offset any costs or decrease in short term profits.
Hadley cells
A convection current in the atmosphere that cycles between the equator and 30 degree N and 30 degree S.
Greenhouse gases
A gas in earth's atmosphere that traps heat near the surface.
Gyres
A large-scale pattern of water circulation that moves clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter clockwise in the Souther Hemisphere
Troposphere
A layer of the atmosphere closest t o the surface of Earth, extending up to 16 km (10 mi) and containing most of the earth's atmosphere's Nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor
Carbon sequestration
A method of removing CO2 from the atmosphere which can include storing carbon in agric. soil or retiring agric. land and allowing it to become pasture or forest, both returning carbon from atmosphere long-term into the ground as plant biomass and soil carbon. More cost effective ways include capturing CO2 from Coal burning stations and compressing/pumping it into abandoned oil wells, or deep ocean.
