Chapter 21 - Industrial Revolution
Corporate Banks in France + Germany
- Usually working in collaboration with governments - Established + developed many railroads - Many companies working in heavy industry - Increasingly organized as limited liability corporation
Industrial Revolution
Describes burst of major inventions + economic expansion that took place in certain industries
Isamburd Kingdom Brunel + Thomas Brassey
Engineered tunnels
Mines Act of 1842
English law prohibiting underground work for all women + girls as well as for boys under 10
Factory Act 1833
English law that led to a sharp decline in the employment of children by limiting the hour set that children over age 9 could work and requiring younger children to attend factory-run elementary schools
Combination Acts
English laws passed in 1799 that outlawed unions + strikes, favoring capitalist business people over skilled artisans. Bitterly resented and widely disregarded by many craft guilds, the acts were repealed by Parliament in 1824
How did labor in British families change in the eighteenth century?
Family members shifted labor away from unpaid work for household consumption and toward work for wages.
Why do many historians now believe that the continued concentration by the French on artisan production of luxury items made sense in an era of industrialization?
France had long dominated that sector of production; it allowed France to capitalize on its know—how and international reputation.
Why were cottage workers, accustomed to the putting—out system, reluctant to work in the new factories even when they received good wages?
In a factory, workers had to keep up with the machine and follow its relentless tempo.
Richard Arkwright
Invented / pirated water frame
Thomas Savery + Thomas Newcomen
Invented steam engine (1698) (1705)
James Hargreaves
Inventor of cotton-spinning jenny (1765)
How did the origins of industrialists change as the Industrial Revolution progressed?
It became harder to form new firms, and instead industrialists were increasingly likely to have inherited their wealth.
Economic nationalism
Policies aimed at protecting + developing a country's economy
Matthew Boulton
Provided Watt with adequate capital + exceptional skills in salesmanship o Equaled those o the renowned pottery king (Josiah Wedgewood)
Why were the young, generally unmarried women who worked for wages outside the home confined to certain "women's jobs"?
The sexual division of labor replicated a long—standing pattern of gender segregation and inequality.
As the business world grew increasingly complex, what did the wives and daughters of successful businessmen discover in eighteenth—century Europe?
There were few job opportunities for women, as most businessmen assumed that middle—class wives and daughters should avoid work in offices and factories.
Separate Spheres
a gender division of labor with the wife at home as other and homemaker and the husband as wage earner 1st o All studies agree that married women from working classes were much less likely to work full-time for wages outside the house after the first child arrives o Often earned small amounts doing putting-out handicrafts at home + taking in boarders 2nd o When married women did work for wages outside house o Usually came from poorest families where husbands were sick || poorly paid || unemployed || missing 3rd o Poor married women / widowed women were joined by legions of young unmarried women who worked full-time o But only certain jobs o Textile factory work || laundering || domestic service important 4th o All women were generally confined to low-paying dead-end jobs o No occupation open to women paid a sufficient wage o Men predominated better-paying more promising employments
Tariff Protection
government 's way of supporting + aiding its own economy by laying high taxes on imported goods from other countries, as when the French responded to cheaper British goods flooding their country by imposing high tariffs on some imported products
Luddites
group of handicraft workers who attacked whole factories in northern England in 1812 and after, smashing the new machines that they believed were putting them out of work
David Ricardo
made idea of Iron law of Wages; Pressure of population growth wages lowered to subsistence level; Wages would be high enough to keep workers rom starving
Rocket
name given to locomotive that was first tested in 1830 on the Liverpool + Manchester Railway at 16 mph
Tariff union (1834)
o Allowed goods to move between the German member states without tariffs o Erecting single uniform tariff o Would encourage infant industries o Allowed them to develop o Eventually hold their own against their more advanced British counterparts
Factors that Gave Rise to Industrial Revolution
o Effective central bank o Well-developed credit markets o Monarchy + aristocratic oligarchy spent lavishly on stylish luxuries o Stable government o Large class of hired agricultural laborers
Wives + daughters of business men
o Fewer opportunities for active participation in Europe's complex business world o Many middle-class women increasingly valued for ladylike gentility o Some influential women writers + most businessmen assumed that middle=class lady should protect + enhance femininity o Should concentrate on proper role as wife / mother
English family
o Had enough money to buy other things besides food o Spend more on manufactured goods
Pauper children
o Owners contracted with local officials to employ large numbers of children o Often treated badly + overworked in mills o Apprenticed as chimney sweeps || shoemakers || etc.
Key indicators of modern industrial development
o Railway mileage o Steam-engine capacity o Increased at annual rates of 5-10% Result --> rail networks completed in western Europe
In nineteenth-century Germany, Fritz Harkort sought
to match English achievements in machine production as quickly as possible, even at great, unprofitable expense.
Thomas Malthus
- "Essay on the Principle of Population" o Population would grow faster than food supply - "Positive checks" to population growth - "prudential restraint" war || famine || disease - Young men + women had to limit growth of population by o Old tried-and-true means of marrying late in life - Powerful attraction would cause most people to marry early + have children
Amalgamated Society of Engineers
- "new model unions" - Represented skilled machinists - Unions won real benefits for members by o Conservative means o Became an accepted part of the industrial scene - British Workers engaged in direct political activity in defense of their own interests - After Owen's national trade union collapse o Working people went into Chartist movement
Friedrich Engels
- Accepted + reinforced Pessimistic view - Published "Condition of the Working Class in England" (1844) o the British middle classes were guilty of "mass murder" and "wholesale robbery." - Culprit industrial capitalism o Relentless competition o Constant technical change
James Watt
- Called on to repair Newcomen engine used in a physics course - Saw that Newcomen engine's waster energy could be reduced by adding separate condenser - Invention patented (1769) increased efficiency to steam engine - Support allowed him to create effective vacuum + regulate complex engine
Friedrich List
- Considered growth of modern industry of the utmost importance o Manufacturing was primary means of increasing people's well-being + relieving their property - "wider the gap between the backward and advanced nations becomes, the more dangerous it is to remain behind." - Backward agricultural nation o Poor o Weak o Vulnerable o Unable to maintain political independence - To promote industry was to defend nation - National System of Political Economy (1841) - Supported formation of custom union (Zollverein) among separate German states
"Patriarchal Tradition"
- Ingrained sexist attitude - Predated economic transformation - 1st o New unfamiliar discipline of clock + machine was hard on married women of laboring classes o Relentless factory discipline conflicted with child care in a way that labor on the farm in the cottage had not o Women operating spinning machinery could mind a child of 7-8 working with her o But she could no longer pace herself through pregnancy / breast-feed baby on the jo o Working-class woman had strong incentives to concentrate on child-care within her home If family could afford it 2nd o Running household in conditions of primitive urban poverty extremely demanding job in its own right o No supermarkets / public transportation o Everything had to be done on foot o "second shift" limited appeal of average married woman form the working class o Women might have accepted the emerging division of labor as best available strategy for family survival in industrializing society 3rd o Desire of males to monopolize best opportunities + hold women down to provide part of answer o Feminist scholars argued sex-segregated employment was also a collective response to new industrial system Segregation of jobs by gender partly an effort by older people to help control the sexuality of working-class youths
First Consequences of Revolutionary Developments
- More beneficial - Cotton goods are cheaper - Families using cotton in cottage industry were freed from constant search for yarn from scattered part time spinners - All thread needed could by spun in cottage on the jenny/ obtained from nearby factory
John Cockerill
- Purchased old summer palace of deposed bishops of Liege in southern Belgium - Converted palace into large industrial enterprise that produced o Steam engines o Machinery o Railway locomotives Established modern ironworks + coal mines - Liege area industrial nerve center o Gathering new information o Transmitting it across Europe
Belgian Banks
- Received permission from growth-oriented government to establish themselves as corporations enjoying limited liability - Stockholders could lose only original investments in bank's common stock --> Could not be forced out by courts to pay for any additional losses out of other property they owned if bank went bankrupt - Publicized risk-reducing advantage of limited liability for investors - Mobilized impressive resources for investments in big companies became industrial banks - Successfully promoted industrial developments
Fritz Harkort
- Second agent of Industrialization - Concluded that Germany had to match all these English achievements as quickly as possible - Setting up shops in abandoned castle in Ruhr Valley - Felt calling to build steam engines + become "Watt of Germany" - Idea simple YET difficult to carry out o Lacked skilled workers o Obtaining material Problem Import iron boilers Shipping is expensive - Still built + sold engines o Won fame + praise - Resulted large financial losses - Forced out of company by financial backers o Cut back operations to reduce losses - Career illustrates both the great efforts of few important business leaders to duplicate the British achievement + difficulty of task
Robert Owen
- employing children under 10 years of age as factory workers was "injurious to the children and not beneficial to the proprietors." - Argued that more humane standards were necessary - Used widely circulated parliamentary reports to influence public opinion - Pioneered in industrial relations by o Combining firm discipline with concern for health
Overview of European industrialization
1st o (1750) First column that all countries were close together + Britain was only slightly ahead of archenemy (France) 2nd o (1800) column headed shows that Britain had opened a noticeable lead over all continental countries o Gap progressively widened as British Industrial Revolution accelerated to 1830; reached full maturity by 1860 3rd o Variations in the timing + extent of industrialization in the continental powers o United States also apparent o Belgium led in adopting Britain's new technology + experienced revolutionary surge between 1830 and 1860 o France developed factory production o Most historians now detect no burst in French mechanization + no acceleration in growth of overall industrial output that may accurately be called revolutionary; Stressed France's good pattern of early industrial growth In general o Eastern + southern Europe began process of modern industrialization later than northwestern + central Europe Finally o Late substantial industrialization in eastern + southern Europe = all European states managed to raise per capita industrial levels in 19th century o Continent-wide increases contrast to large + tragic decreases that occurred at same time in many non-western countries (especially China + India)
Important Conclusions of Working Conditions
1st o Hours in average workweek increased o Some economic historians now believe increasing in parts of northern Europe since the late 17th century o Workers earned more worked more o 1760 nonagricultural workers observed many religious public holidays by not working o Monday = "Saint Monday" Many workers took the day off o 1830 Nonagricultural workers had joined landless agricultural laborers in toiling six rather than 5 days a week 2nd o Wartime decline in average worker's real wages = standard of living from 1792 - 1815 o Negative + powerful negative impact on workers o More unemployment o Expensive bread o Formative years for new factory labor force o Colored early experience of modern industrial life in somber tones 3rd o Consider standard of living o Look at goods they purchased o Workers ate more food of higher nutritional quality as Industrial Revolution progressed o Diets Potatoes Dairy products Fruits Vegetables o Clothing improved o Housing for working people deteriorated (somewhat) o Per capita use of specific goods supports position o Standard living of working classes rose moderately after long wars in France
Continental Challenge
1st o Most continental countries had rich tradition of putting-out enterprise o Merchant capitalists + skilled urban artisans o Tradition gave continental firms the ability to adapt + survive in face of new market conditions 2nd o Continental capitalists did not need to develop their own advanced technology o "borrowed" new methods developed in Great Britain + Engineers + some of financial resources countries lacked 3rd o European countries (France + Russia) had 3rd asset o Had strong independent governments that did not fall under foreign political control o Governments could fashion economic policies to serve their own interests o Eventually use power of state to promote industry + catch up with Britain
Jediah Strutt
Believed that children should be at least 10 years old to work in textile mills
Steam Engine
Breakthrough invention by Thomas Savery in 1698 + Thomas Newcome in 705 that burned coal to produce steam --> Then used to operate a pump; the early models were superseded by James Watt's more efficient steam engine patented in 1769
Edmund Cartwright
Inventor of power loom (1785)
Water Frame
Spinning machine created by Richard Arkwright that had capacity of several hundred spindles and used waterpower; therefore, required larger and more specialized mill -- a factory
In The Condition of the Working Class in England, Friedrich Engels stated that
in general, the living conditions of the working class were "slowly improving."
Class-Consciousness
individual sense of class differentiation
Crystal Palace
location of Great Exhibition (1851) in London, an architectural masterpiece made entirely of glass and iron
British family
o Redirecting labor away from unpaid work for household consumption towards work for wages that they could spend on goods
Wage increase (1792)
o large number of agricultural laborers became hand-loom weavers o mechanics + capitalists sought to invent power loom to save on labor costs
Spinning Jenny
simple inexpensive, hand-powered spinning machine created by James Hargreaves in 1765
Iron law of wages
theory proposed suggesting that the pressure of population growth prevent wages from rising about the subsistence level