Chapter 3: Evaluating Moral Arguments

The following argument is invalid: If casual sex increases the risk of transmitting STDs, then it is morally wrong. Casual sex does not increase the risk of transmitting STDs. Therefore, casual sex is not morally wrong.

True. Just because casual sex does not increase the risk of transmitting STDS does not mean it is morally acceptable—it could be morally wrong for other reasons. This argument is an example of denying the antecedent. It has this form: If p, then q. Not p. Therefore, not q. This form is always invalid This argument is an example of denying the antecedent. It has this form: If p, then q. Not p. Therefore, not q. This form is always invalid. Just because casual sex does not increase the risk of transmitting STDs does not mean it is morally acceptable—it could be morally wrong for other reasons.

An argument with a moral statement as its conclusion must have at least one moral statement as a premise because:

We cannot establish what ought to be moral based on statements solely about what is nonmoral.

Consider the following argument: 1. If ending an innocent human life is wrong, then abortion is wrong. 2. Ending an innocent human life is wrong. 3. Therefore, abortion is wrong. Describe this argument with the following options that use letters to stand in for statements.

1. If p, then q. 2. p. 3. Therefore, q.

Read the following passage, then click or tap on the premise(s) of the argument.

Affirmative action is unjust. Not everyone agrees, of course. But when it comes down to it, affirmative action involves taking into account a characteristic like race or gender when hiring. And those are morally irrelevant characteristics, and it's unjust to treat people differently based on morally irrelevant characteristics.

Which of the following are essential elements of good moral arguments or conversations?

An Essential Element to Good Moral Arguments or Conversations consideration of alternative views an argument for or against the claim a claim to be proved Not an Essential Element to Good Moral Arguments or Conversations strong, passionate commitment to the topic.

Which of the following are examples of cognitive biases?

An Example of Cognitive Bias confirmation bias motivated reasoning the Dunning-Kruger effect availability error Not an Example of Cognitive Bias begging the question the straw man fallacy

Human reasoning is often undone by common human failings. What outcomes can cognitive biases lead to?

An Outcome of Cognitive Biases bad decisions unfounded conclusions regrettable errors Not an Outcome of Cognitive Biases cogent arguments

Read the following argument, then fill in the blank with the appropriate indicator words for the conclusion.

Breaking promises is usually wrong, although there are times when it is acceptable to break a promise. Jenny broke a promise to Miguel. Therefore, it is probably the case that what Jenny did was wrong.

Consider the following argument: A fetus is a human being. Abortion ends the life of a fetus. Therefore, abortion is wrong. Which of the following options could be an implied premise that closes the logical gap in this argument?

Could Be an Implied Premise Ending the life of a human being is wrong. Could Not Be an Implied Premise A fetus has a right to life. A fetus is a person. The life of the fetus outweighs the rights of the mother.

Consider the following argument: 1. Using others as a mere means to your own pleasure is morally wrong. 2. Therefore, having casual sex is morally wrong. Which of the following options could be an implied premise that closes the logical gap in this argument?

Could Be an Implied Premise Having casual sex uses others as a mere means to your own pleasure. Could Not Be an Implied Premise Sex is meant for procreation, and not one's own pleasure. Sex within a committed relationship does not use others as a mere means. There is a moral obligation to avoid having casual sex.

Consider the following argument: Although this may be an unpopular opinion, eating animals is morally wrong. Here's why. Eating animals causes unnecessary harm to sentient beings. Cows, pigs, and chickens all suffer serious harm when they are raised for meat. They are confined in small crates, unable to move around freely. And that is just when they are living—the most obvious harm is that they face premature death when they are killed for the sake of their meat. Which of the following options could be an implicit premise in the argument?

Could Be an Implied Premise It is morally wrong to cause unnecessary harm to sentient beings. Could Not Be an Implied Premise Animals have the capacity to suffer from unnecessary harm. Animals have all the same rights as humans. Animals are sentient beings.

Fill in the blanks to complete the passage below on emotions and arguments.

Emotions have a role to play in the moral life. In moral arguments, the use of emotions alone as substitutes for premises is a fallacy. We do this when we try to convince someone to accept a conclusion by appealing only to fear, guilt, anger, hate, compassion, and the like.

What fallacy or fallacies does the following argument commit? The Republican candidate for Congress recently said that the poor should pay higher taxes than the rich—that really shows how Republicans think.

Fallacies Committed by This Argument hasty generalization straw man Fallacies Not Committed by This Argument appeal to authority slippery slope

What fallacy or fallacies are committed by the following argument? 1. If same-sex marriage has been legalized, then the foundations of civilization will be ruined. 2. The foundations of civilization will be ruined. 3. Therefore, same-sex marriage has been legalized.

Fallacies Committed by This Argument slippery slope affirming the consequent Fallacies Not Committed by This Argument appeal to ignorance appeal to authority

What fallacy or fallacies does the following argument commit? That candidate that argued against same-sex marriage? It turns out she has done illegal drugs. That just goes to show why we shouldn't take positions like hers seriously. If we keep listening to people like her, the entire country is going to be run by people with absolutely no sense of morality.

Fallacies Committed by the Argument appeal to the person slippery slope Fallacies Not Committed by the Argument appeal to ignorance equivocation

Consider the following argument:Humans have a natural capacity to eat animals.If humans have a natural capacity to do something, it is morally acceptable to do it.Therefore, it is morally acceptable for humans to eat animals.Which of the following would be a good counterexample to the second premise?

Good Counterexamples Humans have the natural capacity to discriminate based on race. Humans have the natural capacity to hit children. Good Counterexamples Humans have the natural capacity to help others. Humans have the natural capacity to make unprovoked nuclear war.

Consider the following argument: We have an obligation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions only if greenhouse gases are increasing global temperatures. Greenhouse gases are not increasing global temperatures. Therefore, we do not have an obligation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Which of the following sources would be useful for justifying Premise 2?

Good Sources a peer-reviewed scientific journal Bad Sources one's own experiences with the weather a post on social media an advocacy group that puts out pamphlets about global warming

What is the definition of "validity"?

In any valid argument, if the premises of the argument are true, the conclusion must be true.

Click or tap on the part of the argument that commits the fallacy of appeal to ignorance.

It has not been proven that smoking marijuana undermines the productivity of a society.

When supplying an implied premise of an argument, one must take care to choose a premise that not only makes the argument valid but also is plausible and fitting. Find the most plausible and fitting implicit premise for the following argument: Capital punishment involves killing a living human being. There is a substantial chance that capital punishment will result in innocent people being killed. Therefore, capital punishment is wrong.

It is wrong to do something if there is a substantial chance it will result in innocent people being killed.

Consider the following argument: Killing human beings is wrong. Capital punishment involves killing human beings. Therefore, it logically follows that capital punishment is wrong. The first premise is vulnerable to a counterexample: killing in self-defense, to save your own life from a murderer, is morally acceptable. How could the first premise be revised in order to avoid this counterexample?

Killing innocent human beings is wrong. In cases of self-defense, the attacker is not innocent.

Sort the following statements into moral statements and nonmoral statements.

Moral Statements The war on drugs is wrong. The rich should be obligated to give money to charity. Nonmoral Statements Harold is a pathological liar. Most Americans believe that socialism is unjust.

Sort the following as to whether or not each item is a reason for making implied premises explicit.

Reasons for Making Implied Premises Explicit It is difficult to evaluate an argument unless its main assumptions have been spelled out. Implied premises are often the most dubious parts of an argument. It reduces the likelihood of a logical gap between the premises and the conclusion. Not Reasons for Making Implied Premises Explicit An implicit premise is the most fundamental belief in an argument.

Consider the following argument: Letting a human being die is morally equivalent to killing a human being. Killing a human being is seriously wrong. Therefore, letting a human being die is seriously wrong. How could someone test the premises of this argument?

Suitable Tests They could look for counterexamples to either premise. They could check the premises against our considered moral judgments. Unsuitable Tests They could do empirical research to check if the premises are true. They could check to see if the premises are valid.

Consider the following argument: If there is a right to own guns, then life imprisonment for owning a gun is wrong. Life imprisonment for owning a gun is wrong. Therefore, there is a right to own guns. Which of the following terms describes this argument?

Terms That Apply invalid Terms That Do Not Apply weak sound valid

Consider the following argument: 1. Every person has a right to life. 2. It is wrong to kill someone who has a right to life. 3. Therefore, it logically follows that capital punishment is wrong. Which of the following terms appropriately describe this argument?

Terms That Apply unsound invalid Terms That Do Not Apply weak strong

Consider the following argument: 1. All chihuahuas are dogs. 2. All dogs are mammals. 3. Therefore, all chihuahuas are mammals. Which of the following terms describe this argument?

Terms That Apply valid sound Terms That Do Not Apply strong cogent

Consider the following argument: As the news reported last night, someone in town was pretending to be homeless in order to get donations. Therefore, it is likely that people who claim to be homeless are really just pretending. Which of the following terms describes this argument?

Terms That Apply weak Terms That Do Not Apply strong invalid unsound

Consider the following argument: 1. Killing a human being is always wrong, even to save a thousand other lives. 2. Therefore, euthanasia is wrong. What term or terms appropriately describe the first premise?

Terms That Apply to the First Premise Terms That Do Not Apply to the First Premise weak cogent invalid unsound

Consider the following argument: All trees are mammals. All mammals lay eggs. Therefore, all trees lay eggs. Which of the following terms appropriately describe this argument?

Terms That Appropriately Describe unsound valid Terms That Do Not Appropriately Describe cogent weak

Read the following passage, then click on the conclusion of the argument.

There are poor people all over the world in dire need of food and medical supplies. We have an obligation to help these people. After all, those with the ability to do so are obligated to help anyone in dire need.

Consider the following argument: 1. We should require a license only for activities that are not protected by the Constitution. 2. Owning a gun is an activity that is protected by the Constitution. Therefore, owning a gun should not require a license. 3. One objection to this argument is: We should require a license for activities that have the potential to harm others, like driving a car. Which part of the argument does the objection target?

The objection is aimed at: We should require a license only for activities that are not protected by the Constitution.

Consider the following argument: 1. Abortion involves terminating a human life. 2. Therefore, abortion is wrong. Is another premise needed to make this argument valid?

Yes, a moral statement.

Fill in the blank to complete the sentence about the argument below. The following argument commits the fallacy of ____________ A lot of older people in this country do not favor legalizing marijuana. But it's clear that we should legalize marijuana, because if you look at comprehensive surveys, most people of their generation actually smoked marijuana at some point.

appeal to the person

For each of the following, apply the label "argument" or "not an argument."

argument Americans have a right to own a gun because the Constitution says so. All pleasurable things are good. Delicious food is pleasurable. Therefore, delicious food is good. not an argument Homosexuality is defined as attraction to those of the same gender. Most people now agree that homosexuality is not morally wrong, although this is a recent change in public opinion. A contemporary question is whether capital punishment is morally wrong. The answer can only be that it is.

What fallacy is committed by the following argument? 1. There is a moral obligation not to end the life of a fetus. 2. Therefore, abortion is wrong.

begging the question

Fill in the blank to complete the sentence about the argument below. The following argument commits the fallacy of ____________ We are permitted to harm an innocent person if it is to prevent a real tragedy from taking place. Our students' production is of the play Romeo and Juliet, which is a real tragedy. Therefore, we are permitted to harm an innocent person to prevent our students' production of Romeo and Juliet from taking place.

equivocation

What fallacy is committed by the following argument? 1. A society is like a family. 2. A family functions best when the older members have absolute authority over other members. 3. Therefore, a society functions best when its older members have absolute authority over other members.

faulty analogy

To each of the following arguments, apply the label ""deductive" or "inductive."

inductive In the past, making war preemptively has been wrong. Therefore, it is likely that the next preemptive war will be wrong. Most drug users are addicts. Prohibiting drugs is beneficial to addicts. Jordan is a drug user. Therefore, prohibiting drugs is probably beneficial to Jordan. deductive Abortion kills a fetus. A fetus has a right to life. It is wrong to kill a being with a right to life. It necessarily follows that abortion is wrong. Enacting gun control decreases the deaths of innocent people. We should do things that decrease the deaths of innocent people. Therefore, it must be the case that we should enact gun control.

For each of the following statements, apply the label "moral statement" or "nonmoral statement."

moral statement Punishing an innocent person is bad. Affirmative action is just. nonmoral statement There were over 10,000 people killed in automobile accidents last year. Creating high-paying jobs spurs economic growth.

Consider the following argument: 1. Enacting gun control would reduce the number of people killed by firearms. 2. We ought to do things to reduce the number of people killed by firearms. 3. Therefore, we ought to enact gun control. Identify which of these statements is a moral statement and which is a nonmoral statement.

nonmoral statement Correct label: Premise 1 moral statement Correct label: Premise 2 and conclusion

For each of the indicator words below, say whether it implies that a premise or a conclusion is to follow.

premise given that since because conclusion hence thus therefore

Sort the following sentences into their appropriate category: statements or non-statements.

statements Abortion is wrong. All triangles have three sides. Fish are mammals. non-statements How are you today? Shut the door.

Which of the following explains the "loud, proud folly you find on social media?"

the Dunning-Kruger effect

Consider the following argument: Raising the minimum wage creates unemployment. We have an obligation to avoid doing things that create unemployment. Therefore, we have an obligation not to raise the minimum wage. How reliable would a professor at a well-regarded university be as a source for justifying Premise 1?

unknown reliability as a source

Click on any indicator words that signal that the statement is a moral statement.

wrong / ought Ronnie believes that it is wrong to use animals for food; instead, we ought to respect them as creatures with their own lives. Although beef and pork are good foods, we should not let that fact outweigh our feelings for cows and pigs.