chapter 3. human growth and development

30. We often refer to individuals as conformists. Which of these in- dividuals would most likely conform to his or her peers? a. a 19-year-old male college student. b. 23-year-old male drummer in a rock band. c. a 57-year old female stockbroker. d. a 13-year-old male middle school student.

Conformity seems to peak in the early teens. (d)

87. Marital satisfaction a. is usually highest when a child is old enough to leave home. b. often decreases with parenthood and is lowest prior to a child leaving home. c. correlates high with performance IQ. d. is highest among couples who have seven or more col- lege-educated children.

Despite a divorce rate of nearly 50% in the United States, most Americans still desire to marry. (b)

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt is :

Erikson- Early Childhood

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

Erikson- Early Childhood Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

Erikson- Early Childhood Autonomy vs shame and doubt

The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.

Erikson- Early Childhood Autonomy vs shame and doubt

When talking about Erickson Theory: children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

Erikson- Early Childhood Autonomy vs shame and doubt

Erikson- Early Childhood Autonomy vs shame and doubt

*Psycho social Conflict: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. *Major Question: "Can I do things myself or am I reliant on the help of others?" *Basic Virtue: Will *Important Event(s): Toilet Training

85. A critical period a. makes imprinting possible. b. emphasizes manifest dream content. c. signifies a special time when a behavior must be learned or the behavior won't be learned at all. d. a and c.

A critical period is a time when an organism is susceptible to a specific developmental process. A critical period marks the importance of heredity and environment on development. In humans, for example, language acquisition is thought to begin at around age 2 and ends at about age 14. (d)

78. A person who can look back on his or her life with few regrets feels a. the burden of senile psychosis. b. ego-integrity in Erikson's integrity versus despair stage. c. despair, which is the sense that he or she has wasted life's precious opportunities. d. the burden of generalized anxiety as described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, pub- lished by the American Psychiatric Association (DSM).

According to Erikson, successful resolution of this stage re- sults in the belief that one's life served a purpose. Choice "a" introduces the term senile psychosis, which is decidedly incorrect but a relevant term nevertheless. The word psychosis refers to a break from reality which can include hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorders. In senile psychosis this condition is brought on via old age. At times, the term will be used in a looser sense to imply a loss of memory. Choice "d" throws out two other "must-know" new terms. In counseling, anxiety (or generalized anxiety) refers to fear, dread, or apprehension with- out being able to pinpoint the exact reason for the feeling. Anxiety is in contrast to a phobia, in which the client can pinpoint the cause or source of fear (e.g., riding an elevator). " (b)

90. Piaget is a. a maturationist. b. a behaviorist. c. a structuralist who believes stage changes are qualitative. d. cognitive-behavioral.

According to the structuralist viewpoint, each stage is a way of making sense out of the world. Choice "d," cognitive-behavioral, generally applies to counselors who emphasize thought processes in terms of their impact on emotions as well as behavioral strategies (e.g., reinforcement or homework assignments). (c)

In Piagetian literature, conservation would most likely refer to a. volume or mass. b. defenses of the ego. c. the sensorimotor intelligence stage. d. a specific psychosexual stage of life.

Again, a child who has not mastered conservation does not think in a very flexible manner. A child, for example, is shown a pie cut into 2 pieces. Next, the same pie is cut into 10 pieces. If the child has not mastered conservation he or she will say that the pie that is now cut into 10 pieces is bigger than when it was cut into just 2 pieces. You can't fool a child who has mastered conservation, however. This child will know that the pie has not changed in volume and mass. In general, the statistical research of David Elkind supports Piaget's notions regarding conservation. Piaget and Elkind report that mass is the first and most easily under- stood concept. The mastery of weight is next, and finally the no- tion of volume can be comprehended. (A good memory device might be MV, such as in most valuable player. The "M," or mass, will come first and the "V," or volume, will be the final letter. The "W," or weight, can be squeezed in-between.) (a)

45. Piaget's final stage is known as the formal operational stage. In this stage a. abstract thinking emerges. b. problems can be solved using deduction. c. a and b. d. the child has mastered abstract thinking but still feels helpless.

Again, unfortunately, Piaget felt a large number of individuals never really reach this stage; hence, the difficulty of subjects like algebra, physics, and geometry. Another characteristic of the formal operations stage is that the child can think in terms of multiple hypotheses. If you ask a child to answer a question such as, "Why did someone shoot the president?," a child who has mastered formal operations (approximately age 11 and beyond) will give several hypotheses while a child in the previous stages would most likely be satisfied with one explanation. For exam purposes, remember that abstract concepts of time (e.g., What was life like 500 years ago?) or distance (e.g., How far is 600 miles?) can only be comprehended via abstract thinking, which occurs in this stage. Answer "d" is incorrect inasmuch as Piaget felt that when the child finally reached the final stage he or she would be ready for adulthood and would not experience child- like feelings of helplessness, (c)

20. Kohlberg's second level of morality is known as conventional mo- rality. This level is characterized by a. psychosexual urges. b. a desire to live up to society's expectations. c. a desire to conform. d. b and c.

At the conventional level the individual wishes to conform to the roles in society so that authority and social order can prevail. Kohlberg felt that attempts to upgrade the morals of our youth have failed and he has referred to some character-building edu- cation programs as "Mickey Mouse stuff!" (d)

Erikson states: it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: "The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy".

37. When comparing girls to boys, it could be noted that a. girls grow up to smile more. b. girls are using more feeling words by age 2. c. girls are better able to read people without verbal cues at any age. d. all of the above.

Boys on the other hand are more physically active and aggres- sive, probably due to androgen hormones. Boys also seem to possess better visual-perceptual skills. (d)

65. A child who focuses exclusively on a clown's red nose but ignores his or her other features would be illustrating the Piagetian con- cept of a. egocentrism. b. centration. c. formal abstract reasoning. d. deductive processes.

Centration occurs in the preoperational stage and is character- ized by focusing on a key feature of a given object while not noticing the rest of it. Egocentrism in choice "a" refers to the preoperational child's inability to see the world from anyone else's vantage point. Piaget and Inhelder showed children a model mountain from all sides. The children then sat in front of the model and were asked to pick a picture that best described what the experimenter was seeing. The experimenter was sitting in a different location. Children continually picked pictures of their own view. The abstract reasoning in choice "c" takes place in the final formal operational stage. Deductive thinking pro- cesses in choice "d" allow an individual to apply general reason- ing to specific situations. (b)

What happened with children that successfully Erickson stage of Autonomy vs shame and doubt?

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

32. Freud postulated psychosexual stages a. id, ego, and superego. b. oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. c. eros, thanatos, regression, and superego. d. manifest, latent, oral, and phallic.

Choice "a" depicts Freud's structural theory of the mind as be- ing composed of the id, the ego, and the superego. In choice "c" the word eros refers to the Freudian concept of the life in- stinct while thanatos refers to the self-destructive death instinct. Analysis is just brimming with verbiage borrowed from Greek mythology. The term regression is used to describe clients who return to an earlier stage of development. In choice "d" you should familiarize yourself with the terms manifest and latent, which in psychoanalysis refer to the nature of a dream. Manifest content describes the dream material as it is presented to the dreamer. Latent content (which is seen as far more important by the Freudians) refers to the hidden meaning of the dream. (b)

41. Stage theorists assume a. qualitative changes between stages occur. b. differences surely exist but usually can't be measured. c. that humanistic psychology is the only model which truly supports the stage viewpoint. d. b and c.

Choice "b" is incorrect inasmuch as differences can often be measured. Just ask any behaviorist! Choice "c" makes no sense because analysts (who are not considered humanistic) such as Freud and Erikson have supported the stage theory viewpoint. (a)

34. In the general population a. the suicide rate is 2/100,000. b. suicide occurs at the beginning of a depressive episode, but rarely after the depression lifts. c. suicide rates tend to increase with age. d. b and c.

Choice "b" is way off the mark. Suicidal clients often make attempts after the depression begins to lift! Official statistics indicate about 30,000 suicides each year in the United States. Suicidologists (and yes there is such a word!) believe that the actual number may be closer to 75,000 due to complications in accurately coding the cases. Choice "a" reflects the approxi- mate suicide rate in black females. The overall suicide rate in the United States in any given year is about 11/100,000. Interest- ingly enough, personality measures such as the MMPI-2 and the Rorschach are not good predictors of suicide or for that matter of suicide attempts. In essence, test profiles of suicidal individu- als generally are not distinguishable from those of persons who are not suicidal. (c)

77. Erikson's middle age stage (ages 35-60) is known as generativity versus stagnation. Generativity refers to a. the ability to do creative work or raise a family. b. the opposite of stagnation. c. the productive ability to create a career, family, and lei- sure time. d. all of the above.

Choice "d" gives you a thumbnail sketch of Erikson's seventh, or second-to-last, stage. A person who does not master this stage well becomes self-centered; hence, you also will see the stage termed "generativity versus self-absorption." (d)

11. According to Piaget, a child masters the concept of reversibility in the third stage, known as concrete operations or concrete op- erational thought. This notion suggests a. that heavier objects are more difficult for a child to lift. b. the child is ambidextrous. c. the child is more cognizant of mass than weight. d. one can undo an action, hence an object can return to its initial shape.

Choice "d" is the definition of reversibility. The word ambidex- trous, utilized in choice "b," refers to an individual's ability to use both hands equally well to perform tasks. (d)

42. Development a. begins at birth. b. begins during the first trimester of pregnancy. c. is a continuous process which begins at conception. d. a and c.

Developmental psychologists are fond of looking at prenatal in- fluences (i.e., smoking or alcohol consumption) that affect the fetus before birth. (c)

18. A person who has successfully mastered Erikson's first seven stages would be ready to enter Erikson's final or eighth stage, a. generativity versus stagnation. b. initiative versus guilt. c. identity crisis of the later years. d. integrity versus despair.

Each stage is seen as a psychosocial crisis or a turning point. Erikson did not imply that the person either totally succeeds or fails. Instead, he says that the individual leans toward a given alternative (e.g., integrity or despair). The final stage begins at about age 60. An individual who has successfully mastered all the stages feels a sense of integrity in the sense that his or her life has been worthwhile. (d)

92.In Piagetian nomenclature, the balance between assimilation and accommodation is called:

Equilibration

97. Equilibration is d. the balance between what one takes in (assimilation) and that which is changed (accommodation).

Equilibration (or equilibrium) occurs when the child achieves a balance. When new information is presented, which the child's current cognitive structures, known as schemas: which is the cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information

17. Trust versus mistrust is a. an Adlerian notion of morality. b. Erik Erikson's first stage of psychosocial development. c. essentially equivalent to Piaget's concept of egocentrism. d. the basis of morality according to Kohlberg.

Erikson proposed eight stages and this is the first. This stage corresponds to Freud's initial oral-sensory stage (birth to ap- proximately 1 year). Each of Erikson's stages is described using bipolar or opposing tendencies. Although Piaget and Erikson are the most prominent stage theorists, you should also become fa- miliar with the work of Harry Stack Sullivan, who postulated the stages of infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, and late adolescence. Sullivan's theory, known as the psychiatry of interpersonal relations, is similar to Erikson's theory in that biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of soci- ety. (b)

12. During a thunderstorm, a 6-year-old child in Piaget's stage of preoperational thought (stage 2) says, "The rain is following me." This is an example of a. egocentrism. b. conservation. c. centration. d. abstract thought.

Expect to see a question on the test like this one and you can't go wrong. This is the typical or prototype question you will come across in order to ascertain whether you are familiar with the Piagetian concept of egocentrism. By egocentrism, Piaget was not really implying the child is self-centered. Instead, egocen- trism conveys the fact that the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else. Choice of "d" mentions ab- stract thought, which does not occur until Piaget's final or fourth stage known as formal operations. (a)

68. Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson agreed that a. each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage. b. developmental stages are primarily psychosexual. c. developmental stages are primarily psychosocial. d. a person can proceed to a higher stage even if a lower stage is unsolved.

Freud felt the stages were psychosexual and his disciple Erik- son felt they were psychosocial, yet both agreed that individuals must resolve one stage before forging on to the next. Another well-known figure in developmental processes is R. J. Having- hurst, who proposed developmental tasks for infancy and early childhood (e.g., learning to walk or eat solid foods); tasks for middle childhood, ages 6 to 12 years (e.g., learning to get along with peers or developing a conscience); tasks of ado- lescence, ages 12 to 18 years (e.g., preparing for marriage and an economic career); tasks of early adulthood ages, 19 to 30 years (e.g., selecting a mate and starting a family); tasks of middle age ages, 30 to 60 years (e.g., assisting teenage children to become responsible adults and developing leisure- time activities); and tasks of later maturity, age 60 and be- yond (e.g., dealing with the death of a spouse and adjusting to retirement). Another popular stage theorist is Jane Loevinger, who focused on ego development via seven stages and two transitions, the highest level being "integrated" (being similar to Maslow's self-actualized individual or Kohlberg's self-accepted universal principles stage). (a)

50. The correct order of the Freudian psychosexual stages is: a. oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. b. oral, anal, genital, phallic, and latency. c. oral, phallic, latency, genital, and anal. d. phallic, genital, latency, oral, and anal.

Freud is the father of psychoanalysis, which is the most comprehensive theory of personality and therapy ever devised. (a)

22. According to Kohlberg, level 3, which is postconventional or self-accepted moral principles, a. refers to the Naive Hedonism stage. b. operates on the premise that rewards guide morals. c. a and b. d. is the highest level of morality. However, some people never reach this level.

Hedonism mentioned in choice "a" occurs in stage 2 of the pre- conventional level. Here the child says to himself, "If I'm nice others will be nice to me and I'll get what I want." Choice "b" ac- tually refers to the first stage of the preconventional level which is the punishment versus obedience orientation. (d)

61. According to the Freudians, if a child is severely traumatized, he or she may a given psychosexual stage. a. skip b. become fixated at c. ignore d. a and c

Here is a must-know term for any major exam. In psychoanalytic theory the word fixation implies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next. The person liter- ally becomes stuck (or fixated) in a stage where he or she feels safe. Therefore, when life becomes too traumatic, emotional de- velopment can come to a screeching halt, although physical and cognitive processes may continue at a normal pace. (b)

46. Kohlberg lists stages of moral development which fall into levels. a. 6, 3 b. 6, 6 c. 3, 6 d. 3, 3

Here is a vest-pocket review of the stages and levels. Precon- ventional Level with Stage 1, Punishment/Obedience Orienta- tion, and Stage 2, Naive Hedonism (also called instrumental or egotistic) Orientation. The entire first level is sometimes called the "premoral level." Conventional Level with Stage 3, Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation, and Stage 4, Authority, Law, and Order Orientation. This entire level is often known as "morality of conventional rules and conformity." Postconventional Level with Stage 5, Democratically Accepted Law or "Social Contract" and Stage 6, Principles of Self-Conscience and Universal Ethics. The last level is sometimes termed the "morality of self-accepted principles level." (a)

100. From a Freudian perspective, a client who has a problem with alcoholism and excessive smoking would be a. considered an oral character. b. considered an anal character. c. considered a genital character. d. fixated at the latency stage.

Here is where good old common sense comes in handy. The oral region of the body (i.e., the mouth) would be the portion of the body most closely related to smoking and alcoholism. (a)

38. The Freudian developmental stage which "least" emphasizes sexuality is a. oral. b. anal. c. phallic. d. latency.

Here's an easy one. Remember how I mentioned in question 32 that the word latent refers to the hidden meaning of the dream? Well in the developmental stages the sexual drive seems hidden (or at least not very prominent) during latency. Sexual interests are replaced by social interests like sports, learning, and hob- bies. Now this is very important: Latency is the only Freudian developmental stage which is not primarily psychosexual in na- ture. It occurs roughly between ages 6 and 12. (d)

29. The Eriksonian stage that focuses heavily on sharing your life with another person is a. actually the major theme in all of Erikson's eight stages. b. generativity versus stagnation—ages 35 to 60. c. intimacy versus isolation—ages 23 to 34. d. a critical factor Erikson fails to mention.

If you didn't know the answer, did you guess? Yes, of course I'm being serious. Remember no penalty is assessed for guessing on the NCE/CPCE. An educated guess based on the fact that inti- macy implies sharing one's life would have landed you a correct answer here. Counselors need to be aware that an individual who fails to do well in this stage may conclude that he or she can depend on no one but the self. (c)

35. The fear of death a. is greatest during middle age. b. is an almost exclusively male phenomenon. c. is the number one psychiatric problem in the geriatric years. d. surprisingly enough occurs in the teen years.

In Erikson's stages the individual would accept the finality of life better during the final state than in the middle age years. (a)

The statement, "the ego is dependent on the id," would most likely reflect the work of a. Erik Erikson. b. Sigmund Freud. c. Jay Haley. d. Arnold Lazarus, William Perry, and Robert Kegan.

In Freudian theory the id is also called the pleasure principle and houses the animalistic instincts. The ego, which is known as the reality principle, is pressured by the id to succumb to pleasure or gratification regardless of consequences. Erikson, an ego psychologist, would not emphasize the role of the id, but rather the power of control or the ego. Jay Haley is known for his work in strategic and problem solving therapy, often utilizing the technique of paradox. He claims to have acquired a wealth of information by studying the work of Milton H. Erickson, who is mentioned in the previous question. Arnold Lazarus is con- sidered a pioneer in the behavior therapy movement, especially in regard to the use of systematic desensitization, a technique which helps clients cope with phobias. Today his name is as- sociated with multimodal therapy. Perry is known for his ideas related to adult cognitive development; especially college stu- dents. Perry is known for his ideas related to adult cognitive develop- ment; especially regarding college students. For exam purposes I would commit to memory the fact that Perry stresses a concept known as dualistic thinking common to teens in which things are conceptualized as good or bad or right and wrong. Dualism has also been referred to as black and white thinking with virtu- ally no ambiguity. Noted counseling author Ed Neukrug shares the fact that students in this stage assume that a professor has "the answer." As they enter adulthood and move into relativis- tic thinking the individual now has the ability to perceive that not everything is right or wrong, but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation. In essence there is more than one way to view the world. Finally, Robert Kegan is another well-known figure in the area of adult cognitive development. Kegan's model stresses interpersonal development. Kegan's theory is billed as a "constructive model of development, meaning that individuals construct reality throughout the lifespan." (b)

The only psychoanalyst who created a developmental theory which encompasses the entire life span was a. Erik Erikson. b. Milton H. Erickson. c. A. A. Brill. d. Jean Piaget.

In Freudian theory, the final stage (i.e., the genital stage) be- gins at age 12 and is said to continue throughout one's life span. Many scholars do not feel that Freud's theory truly cov- ers the entire life span. They find it difficult to believe that a crisis at age 12 remains the central issue until senility sets in! Erikson, also a psychoanalyst and a disciple of Freud's, created a theory with eight stages in which each stage represents a psy- chosocial crisis or a turning point. Since the final stage does not even begin until age 60, most personality theorists believe that his theory actually covers the entire life of an individual. As for the other choices, Brill is analytic and will be discussed in the section on career theory. Milton H. Erickson, not to be confused with Erik Erikson, has a "c" in his name and is generally as- sociated with brief psychotherapy and innovative techniques in hypnosis. Piaget is the leading name in cognitive development in children. (a)

49. In girls the Oedipus complex may be referred to as a. systematic desensitization. b. covert desensitization. c. in vivo desensitization. d. the Electra complex.

In the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls (also grounded in Greek myth), the female child fantasizes about sexual relations with the parent of the opposite sex. This creates tension since this is generally not possible. Hence the child is said to have a fantasy in which he or she wishes to kill the parent of the opposite sex. Freud went on to hypothesize that eventual- ly the child identifies with the parent of the same sex. This leads to internalization of parental values, and thus the conscience or superego is born. As for choices "a," "b," and "c," they are all behavioral terms and hence incorrect. The term covert in choice "b" refers to any psychological process which cannot be directly observed, while in choice "c" I introduce you to "in vivo" which means the client is exposed to an actual situation which might prove frightful or difficult. The word desensitization refers to behavior therapy techniques that help to ameliorate anxiety re- actions. (d)

24. Freud and Erikson a. could be classified as behaviorists. b. could be classified as maturationists. c. agreed that developmental stages are psychosexual. d. were prime movers in the biofeedback movement.

In the behavioral sciences, the concept of the maturation hy- pothesis (also known as the maturation theory) suggests that behavior is guided exclusively via hereditary factors, but that cer- tain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment. In addition, the theory suggests that the individual's neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for the behavior to unfold. A counselor who believes in this concept strives to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, and drives. The client's childhood and the past are seen as important therapeutic topics. (b)

19. In Kohlberg's first or preconventional level, the individual's mor- al behavior is guided by a. psychosexual urges. b. consequences. c. periodic fugue states. d. counterconditioning.

In the consequences stage (called premoral), an M&M or a slap on the behind is more important than societal expectations and the law. In choice "c" the term fugue state refers to an individual who experiences memory loss (amnesia) and leaves home, of- ten with the intention of changing his or her job and identity. What does this have to do with answering the question regarding Kohlberg, you ask? Nothing, that's decidedly why it's the wrong answer! In choice "d" you are confronted with the word counter- conditioning. This is a behavioristic technique in which the goal is to weaken or eliminate a learned response by pairing it with a stronger or desirable response. Systematic desensitization is a good example, but more on that later. (b)

84. The statement, "Bad behavior is punished, good behavior is not," is most closely associated with a. Kohlberg's premoral stage at the preconventional level. b. Kohlberg's conventional level. c. the work of Carl Jung. d. Piaget's autonomous stage, which begins at about age 8.

In the initial stage, morality is guided by a fear of punishment. Choice "d" is concerned with the Piagetian conceptualization of moral development. Piaget suggested two major stages: the heteronomous stage and the autonomous stage, which begins at approximately age 10. Heteronomous morality occurs between ages 4 and 7, when the child views rules as absolutes that result in punishment. Autonomous morality is characterized by the child's perception that rules are relative and can be altered or changed. (a)

16. Kohlberg's three levels of morality are a. preconventional, conventional, postconventional. b. formal, preformal, self-accepted. c. self-accepted, other directed, authority directed. d. preconventional, formal, authority directed.

In the preconventional level the child responds to consequences. In this stage reward and punishment greatly influence the be- havior. In the conventional level the individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and even the nation. Kohlberg felt that many people never reach the final level of postconven- tional or self-accepted morality. A person who reaches this level is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, digni- ty, and equality of human rights. Kohlberg's research indicated that under 40% of his middle-class urban males had reached the postconventional level. Ghandi, Socrates, and Martin Luther King Jr. have been cited as examples of individuals who have reached this level, in which the common good of society is a key issue. (a)

56. In Piaget's developmental theory, reflexes play the greatest role in the a. sensorimotor stage. b. formal operational stage. c. preoperational stage. d. acquisition of conservation.

It would make sense that the child would use reflexes in the first stage, which is termed sensorimotor intelligence. Piaget has said that the term practical intelligence captures the gist of this stage. Piaget emphasized the concept of "object permanence" here. A child who is beyond approximately 8 months of age will search for an object that is no longer in sight (e.g., hidden behind a parent's back or under a blanket). The child learns that objects have an existence even when the child is not interacting with them. (a)

13. Lawrence Kohlberg suggested a. a single level of morality. b. two levels of morality. c. three levels of morality. d. preoperational thought as the basis for all morality.

Kohlberg's theory has three levels of moral development: the Preconventional, Conventional, and Postconventional level which is referred to in some texts as the Personal Integrity or Morality of Self-Accepted Principles level. Each level can be broken down further into two stages. (c)

33. In adolescence a. females commit suicide more than males. b. suicide is a concern but statistically very rare. c. the teens who talk about suicide are not serious. d. males commit suicide more often than females, but fe- males attempt suicide more often.

Males commit suicide more often than females. This an- swer would apply not just to adolescence but to nearly all age brackets. One theory is that males are more successful in killing themselves because they use firearms whereas females rely on less lethal methods. Choice "b" is false inasmuch as sui- cide is generally the 11th or 12th leading cause of death in this country as well as the second or third leading killer of teens each year. And as far as choice "c" is concerned, a counselor should al- ways take it seriously when a client of any age threatens suicide. The truth is that the vast majority of those who have killed them- selves have communicated the intent to do so in some manner. So take clients' suicide threats seriously. Have I made myself clear? (d)

88. Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, is famous for his "hierarchy of needs," which postulates a. lower-order physiological and safety needs and higher-order needs, such as self-actualization. b. that psychopathology rests within the id. c. that unconscious drives control self-actualization. d. that stimulus-response psychology dictates behavioral at- tributes.

Maslow felt the person first needs to satisfy immediate or basic needs such as food and water. Next, safety and security must be dealt with. Next, a need for love, affection, and belonging emerges. The highest level is termed self-actualization, meaning the person becomes all he or she can be. A word to the wise: Some tests may refer to higher-order needs (i.e., any need which is not physiological) as "metaneeds." (a)

89. To research the dilemma of self-actualization, Maslow a. used goslings as did Konrad Lorenz. b. psychoanalyzed over 400 neurotics. c. worked exclusively with schizophrenics in residential set- tings. d. interviewed the best people he could find who escaped "the psychology of the average."

Maslow said if you research the "psychopathology of the average" you will have a sick theory of human behavior! The answer: work with those who have transcended the so-called average or normal existence. (d)

98. A counselor is working with a family who just lost everything in a fire. The counselor will ideally focus on a. Maslow's higher-order needs, such as self-actualization. b. building accurate empathy of family members. c. Maslow's lower-order needs, such as physiological and safety needs. d. The identified patient.

Maslow, suggested the following hierarchy of needs: survival, security, safety, love, self-esteem, and self-actualization. The assumption is that lower-order needs must be fulfilled before the individual can be concerned with higher-order needs. (c)

26. In which Eriksonian stage does the midlife crisis occur? a. generativity versus stagnation b. integrity versus despair c. a and b d. Erikson's stages do not address midlife issues

Most theorists believe that the midlife crisis occurs between ages 35 and 45 for men and about five years earlier for women, when the individual realizes his or her life is half over. Persons often need to face the fact that they have not achieved their goals or aspirations. Incidentally, the word generativity refers to the ability to be productive and happy by looking outside one's self and being concerned with other people. Some exams may refer to this stage as "generativity versus self-absorption." Dan- iel Levinson, who wrote Seasons of a Man's Life and Seasons of a Woman's Life, viewed the midlife crisis as somewhat posi- tive, pointing out that individuals who do not face it may indeed stagnate or become stale during their fifties. In other words, avoiding or bypassing the crisis can lead to lack of vitality in later years. (a)

21. Kohlberg's highest level of morality is termed postconventional morality. Here the individual a. must truly contend with psychosexual urges. b. has the so-called "good boy/good girl" orientation. c. has self-imposed morals and ethics. d. a and b.

Only one answer is correct here, folks. Choice "a" reflects the Freudian theory, while choice "b" is stage 3 of Kohlberg's theory, which occurs at the conventional level. In the "good boy/good girl orientation" the person is concerned with approbation and the ability to please others in order to achieve recognition. (c)

What are the implications of Erikson's second stage for parents?

Parents should provide many opportunities for toddlers to make choices. When parents "child-proof" the home, they offer freedom and safety for the toddler to explore his environment, and foster the development of autonomy. The potential strength acquired on successful resolution at this stage is the determination to exercise free will in the face of failures, shame and doubt.

91. factors cause Down syndrome, which produces mental retardation. a. Environmental b. Genetic c. Chemical dependency d. Unconscious

Persons with Down syndrome have a rather flat face, a thick tongue, and slanted eyes. Down syndrome, which is the result of a chromosomal abnormality (an additional chromosome or two), causes brain damage which results in an IQ of 50 or less (100 is normal). Down syndrome also has been called "mongolism," which was inspired by the slanted, almost Asiatic eyes. Other genetic or hereditary conditions include: Phenylketonuria (PKU), which is an amino acid metabolic difficulty that causes retardation unless the baby is placed on a special diet; Klinefelter's syndrome, in which a male shows no masculinity at puberty; and Turner's syndrome, where a female has no gonads or sex hormones. (b)

Jean Piaget's theory has four stages. The correct order from stage 1 to stage 4 is a. formal operations, concrete operations, preoperations, sensorimotor. b. formal operations, preoperations, concrete operations, sensorimotor. c. sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, formal operations. d. concrete operations, sensorimotor, preoperations, formal operations.

Piaget was adamant that the order of the stages remains the same for any culture, although the age of the individ- ual could vary. It is time for your first memory device. It would make sense that Piaget's first stage emphasizes the senses and the child's motoric skills, hence the name sensorimotor stage. I can remember the last stage by reminding myself that people seem to be more formal as they get older. The final stage is of course formal operations. As for the other two stages, the stage with "pre" (i.e., preoperations) must come before the remain- ing stage which is concrete operations. Do not automatically as- sume that my memory devices will be the best ones for you. Instead, experiment with different ideas. The memory strategies presented here are simply ones which my students and I have found helpful. (c)

A child masters conservation in the Piagetian stage known as a. formal operations—12 years and older. b. concrete operations—ages 7 to 11. c. preoperations—ages 2 to 7. d. sensorimotor intelligence—birth to 2 years.

Remember your memory device: conservation begins with a "c" and so does concrete operations. The other three stages pro- posed by Jean Piaget do not begin with a "c." (b)

43. Development is cephalocaudal, which means a. foot to head. b. head to foot. c. limbs receive the highest level of nourishment. d. b and c.

The head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs. Cephalo- caudal simply refers to bodily proportions between the head and tail. (b)

Similarities & Differences Between Freud & Erikson

Sigmund Freud is renowned for his psychoanalytic theory that laid a legion of practitioners. One thinker who both underwent and practiced psychoanalysis is Erik Erikson. While Freud believed that development was driven by biological impulses such as the need for food and sex, Erikson emphasized the role of environmental factors and culture. Both theorist's separate development into stages and use similar age divisions.

82. Kohlberg proposed three levels of morality. Freud, on the other hand, felt morality developed from the a. superego. b. ego. c. id. d. eros.

Superego state is filled with the shoulds, oughts, and musts which often guide our morality. (a)

67. Piaget's preoperational stage a. is the final stage, which includes abstract reasoning. b. includes mastering conservation. c. includes the acquisition of a symbolic schema. d. all of the above.

Symbolic mental processes allow language and symbolism in play to occur. A milk carton can easily become a spaceship or a pie plate can become the steering wheel of an automobile. The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to 7. If you erroneously felt any of the other choices were correct review all the previous questions related to Piagetian theory. (c)

Freud's stages are psychosexual while Erik Erikson's stages are a. psychometric. b. psychodiagnostic. c. psychopharmacological. d. psychosocial.

The Freudian stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) emphasize sexuality. Erik Erikson's eight stages (e.g., trust vs. mistrust or integrity vs. despair) focus on social relationships and thus are described as psychosocial. To mention the other an- swer choices is to dispose of them. Psychometric simply refers to mental testing or measurement. Psychodiagnostic pertains to the study of personality through interpretation of behavior or nonverbal cues. In counseling, per se, it also can mean that the counselor uses the aforementioned factors or tests to label the client in a diagnostic category. Psychopharmacology studies the effects that drugs have on psychological functions. (d)

48. Freud's Oedipus Complex a. is the stage in which fantasies of sexual relations with the opposite-sex parent occurs. b. occurs during the phallic stage. c. a and b. d. is a concept Freud ultimately eliminated from his theory.

The Oedipus complex is the most controversial part of Freud's theory and choices "a" and "b" roughly describe it. The Oedipus complex, the boy's secret wish to marry his mother, paired with rage toward his father, is said to occur between ages 3 and 5. Looking for a good memory device? Well here it is. The Oedipus complex occurs during the phallic stage and both words conve- niently contain the letter "p." Some tests may actually refer to this stage as the phallic-oedipal stage. Freud chose the name based on the Greek myth in which Oedipus, the mythical king of Thebes, unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. (c)

Erickson Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt defines:

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

57. A mother hides a toy behind her back and a young child does not believe the toy exists anymore. The child has not mastered a. object permanence. b. reflexive response. c. representational thought. d. a and c.

The child who has not mastered object permanence is still a vic- tim of "out of sight, out of mind." The child, needless to say, needs representational thought to master object permanence, which is also called object constancy. During this initial stage the child learns the concept of time (i.e., that one event takes place before or after another) and causality (e.g., that a hand can move an object). (d)

94. Ritualistic behaviors, which are common to all members of a species, are known as a. hysteria. b. pica. c. fixed-action patterns elicited by sign stimuli. d. dysfunctional repetition.

Theoretically, a fixed-action pattern (abbreviated FAP) will re- sult whenever a releaser in the environment is present. The ac- tion, or sequence of behavior, will not vary(c)

A tall skinny pitcher of water is emptied into a small squatty pitcher. A child indicates that she feels the small pitcher has less water. The child has not yet mastered a. symbolic schema. b. conservation. c. androgynous psychosocial issues. d. trust versus mistrust.

This is a must-know principle for any major test in counseling! In Piaget's theory the term conservation refers to the notion that a substance's weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if it changes shape. According to Piaget, the child masters conser- vation and the concept of reversibility during the concrete op- erations stage (ages 7 to 11 years). Now here is a super memory device. Both conservation and the ability to count mentally (i.e., without matching something up to something else physically) both occur in the concrete operational thought stage. Fortu- nately, conservation, counting, and concrete operations all start with a "c." How convenient! And you thought memorizing these principles was going to be difficult. The other answer choices are ridiculous, and that's putting it mildly. In Piaget's theory, symbol- ic schema is a cognitive structure that grows with life experience. A schema is merely a system which permits the child to test out things in the physical world. Choice "c," androgynous, is a term which implies that humans have characteristics of both sexes. (The Greek word andros means man while the Greek word for women is gyne.) And, of course, by now you know that trust vs. mistrust is Erikson's first psychosocial stage. (b)

In Erickson developmental stage children become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

This willful exploration and sense of independence is called autonomy

36. In Freudian theory, attachment is a major factor a. in the preconscious mind. b. in the mind of the child in latency. c. which evolves primarily during the oral age. d. a and b.

This would make sense from a logical standpoint, because the oral stage is the first Freudian psychosexual stage and occurs while the child is still an infant (i.e., the stage goes from birth to one year). As mentioned earlier, attachments in human as well as animal studies indicate that the bonding process takes place early in life. (c)

In Erickson Early childhood states to parents

To encourage the child to becoming more independent.

99. The anal retentive personality is a. charitable. b. stingy. c. kind. d. thinks very little about money matters.

To put it bluntly, the anal retentive character is said to be cheap! (b)

In Freudian theory instincts are emphasized. Erik Erikson is an ego psychologist. Ego psychologists a. emphasize id processes. b. refute the concept of the superego. c. believe in man's powers of reasoning to control behavior. d. are sometimes known as radical behaviorists.

To say that the id is the bad boy of Freudian theory is to put it mildly! The id is the seat of sex and aggression. It is not rational or logical, and it is void of time orientation. The id is chaotic and concerned only with the body, not with the outside world. Freud emphasized the importance of the id, while Erikson stressed ego functions. The ego is logical, rational, and utilizes the power of reasoning and control to keep impulses in check. Simply put, ego psychologists, unlike the strict Freudians, accent the ego and the power of control. The term superego in choice "b" refers to the moralistic and idealistic portion of the personality. The behav- iorists, mentioned in choice "d," do not believe in concepts like the id, the ego, and the superego. In fact, radical behaviorists do not believe in mental constructs such as "the mind" nor do they believe in consciousness. The behaviorist generally feels that if it can't be measured then it doesn't exist. (c)

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is

the second stage of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately age two to three years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a greater sense of self-control.

If children in this Erickson second stage are encouraged and supported

they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

Erickson

• Erikson's stages cover a person's lifespan. These stages are based on the analysis of major psychosocial challenges. The first three stages cover infancy and early childhood. The conflicts covered during these three stages are establishing trust, independence and purpose. Stages 4 and 5 cover school age and adolescence -- periods during which an individual must gain competency and sense of self. The remaining stages cover early adulthood, middle adulthood and old age. During the final stages, a person must learn to love, care for others and develop a sense of integrity.

Freudian Stages

• Oedipus or Electra complex. Latency Stage occurs from age 6 to puberty. During the latency stage, a child represses his/her sex drive and Freud emphasized the first six years of life as being most crucial for personality development. He lists three stages: the oral stage (first year of life), the anal stage (1-3 years) and the phallic stage (3-6 years). The stages revolve around pleasure centers -- the mouth, anal release and genitals. A conflict occurs during the phallic stage when the child desires to kill the same-sex parent to gain access to the opposite-sex parent. This conflict is called focuses on social skills. The final stage is the genital stage, when the person experiences sexual awareness and develops his/her identity.