Chapter 31 - Societies at Crossroads
What are opioids, and why can they be so harmful?
Drugs that stimulate the brain's opiate receptors. Opium numbs everything and makes the pain go away, leading to easy addiction. They are often over prescribed by doctors.
Which of the following was NOT a provision of the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842? A) Britain gained control of the island of Hong Kong. B) British merchants gained the right to conduct the opium trade unimpeded. C) Chinese ports were open to foreign trade and residence. D) Christian missionaries were permitted to come into China. E) Japan gained control of the island of Taiwan.
E) Japan gained control of the island of Taiwan.
How did tsarist Russia try to solve the problem of serfdom (oppression of peasants)?
Emancipation of serfs (Tsar Alexander II)
What is ironic about the Chinese leader who would eventually suppress the Taiping Rebellion?
Empress Dowager Cixi took power (odd due to the patriarchal nature of the Qing dynasty) and put down the rebellion, even though the rebellion was pushing for equality for both men and women. Ruled in a patriarchal way.
Is it inevitable that all great empires will decline and collapse? Can this, or should this, be avoided?
Everything is inevitable - every great empire will come to an end. It would take a truly utopian society for this to not be the rule. The rise of an empire is due to tolerance, but the paradox of tolerance ends up destroying it. There should be an attempt to avoid it, but it could always end up being a self-fulfilling prophecy. All great empires will decline, but not all through collapse.
How were the Jews encouraged to leave Russia both overtly and more insidiously?
Fines and the rarity of education, and often riots and pogroms in a much more violent manner. Taxes that Jews would be forced to pay, mistreatment, fees for family members for those who have left (therefore encouraging them to leave),
Why did Western Europeans, and particularly the British, trade opium with China?
Foreign countries had extreme trade imbalance with China, with extreme demand for Chinese goods and little supply of them. Because of this, Chinese prices were remarkably high. The addictive opium, however, helped fix this problem by giving China a need for western goods.
What led to the end of Tokugawa rule?
Foreign intrusion started a domestic crisis that ended in the collapse of Tokugawa bakufu. There was widespread opposition to shogun rule, especially in provinces. Imperial rule returned, and once the shogun complied to foreign demands, the daimyo and emperor opposed. Chosu and Satsuma became centers for upset samurai, and dissidents rallied around the emperor in the imperial court in Kyoto. Tokugawa officials responded to daimyo outrage by forcing daimyo to retire, executing or imprisoning samurai critics. A civil war resulted in Tokugawa loss, and the Shogun resigned. Boy emperor Mutsuhito (otherwise known as Meiji ('Enlightened Rule') took power, reigning during the most eventful time of Japanese history. Ended almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan.
What did the Opium War demonstrate?
Generally, it demonstrated the weakness of China's military and power at the time. Commissioner Lin Zexu directed to stop opium trade. Britain refused to stop, so Lin confiscated and destroyed 20,000 chests of opium. Europe was outraged by actions against opium, retaliating and going into conflict to reopen the opium trade. The European navy was much stronger, and Chinese weaponry was outdated compared to Europe's. Still, China would not accept peace. The stalemate was broken once the Grand Canal (linking Yangzi and Yellow River) was destroyed. Led by the gunboat Nemesis, Europe went up the Yangzi river, and by the time it reached the intersection, the Chinese government wanted peace.
How did tsarist Russia try to solve the problem of social unrest (increasing radicalism)?
Government crackdown Scapegoating and persecution of Jews (pogroms) Bloody Sunday
What was so significant about the Russo-Japanese War?
A huge blow to the morale of the supposed 'stronger Russian military'. Also brought Japan into the European eye.
Which of the Young Turk proposals caused the most dissension in the empire? A) Turkish as the official language of the empire B) equality before the law C) free public education D) freedom of religion E) universal suffrage
A) Turkish as the official language of the empire
The Russian intelligentsia promoted terrorism as a strategy for political reform because A) their attempts at more peaceful reform were crushed by the tsarist authorities. B) Tsar Alexander II refused to consider any reform measures. C) many were anarchists who believed that individual freedom could not be realized until all government was abolished. D) they were affiliated with Zionists, who advocated the use of terrorism when necessary. E) All these answers are correct.
A) their attempts at more peaceful reform were crushed by the tsarist authorities.
How was Hong Xiuquan's response to his upbringing rather unique?
After failing the civil service exams, he had an emotional collapse, got sick, became a teacher, and came to believe that he went to heaven and was revealed to be the brother of Jesus Christ. According to G-d, he was meant to reunite the country and pave way for a heavenly kingdom. Started a rebellion.
Muhammad Ali Significance
An Egyptian leader who essentially led to Egyptian autonomy and the Ottoman Empire's loss of Egypt.
Zemstvos Significance
An attempt at a representative assembly system - however, it was still under great control of the nobility and autocracy.
The Russian empire was defeated in the Crimean War because A) the Ottoman army was superior in arms and training. B) Britain and France joined forces to prevent Russian expansion into the Ottoman empire. C) Russian troops mutinied and demanded a new constitution. D) the people of the Balkan peninsula resisted Russian advances. E) the Russian troops were inadequately trained.
B) Britain and France joined forces to prevent Russian expansion into the Ottoman empire.
At the end of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman empire, Russian empire, Qing dynasty, and Tokugawa Japan were "societies at crossroads" because they A) were all dealing with the challenges of rapid industrialization. B) discovered through wars and confrontations that they were militarily much weaker than the western powers. C) were all forced to grant equal rights and political freedom to their people. D) were all competing for the same colonies and resources. E) All these answers are correct.
B) Discovered through wars and confrontations that they were militarily much weaker than the western powers.
The Taiping rebellion was defeated when A) the dowager empress imprisoned the emperor and ended the Hundred Days reforms. B) Nanjing was defeated by a combined force of imperial and European soldiers. C) the dowager empress died, leaving a two-year-old child as emperor. D) the British seized the Grand Canal and cut off north-south trade in the empire. E) All these answers are correct.
B) Nanjing was defeated by a combined force of imperial and European soldiers.
The British insisted on their right to trade opium with China because A) they were unaware of the social and health risks of opium addiction. B) it was the only trade good that they could sell in China at a profit. C) they planned to weaken the Chinese people with opium and then take over the Chinese economy. D) they argued that opium was only a fraction of the volume of trade delivered to China. E) the Chinese government had welcomed the opium trade in earlier times.
B) it was the only trade good that they could sell in China at a profit.
The capital for the early industrialization of Meiji Japan came primarily from A) the export of textile products. B) land taxes. C) commercial taxes. D) private investors. E) foreign investors.
B) land taxes.
Could the Ottoman Empire have staved off its demise and collapse? If so, how?
Being at the cutting edge of technology could help the cause, however collapse is inevitable no matter what. Civilization must work to constantly be successful. Decentralizing and spreading power through different regions could have benefitted them. Westernizing and becoming more 'European'
Could Russia have avoided revolution, if so, how?
Bloody Sunday could have been very easily avoided, and being that that sparked social unrest, the complete lack of this event would greatly reduce opposition. Maybe changing tsars to figureheads would have been helpful. Better handling of industrialization and earlier introduction of soviets as well.
The most significant achievement of Sultan Mahmud II was the A) creation of a system of primary education. B) legal emancipation of women. C) creation of a modern army. D) creation of a legislative assembly. E) reconquest of Egypt.
C) creation of a modern army.
How and why did China and Japan approach modernization differently?
China had refused to change the core government of their society. Kept centralized authority without major changes, while Japan went all in.
Which of the following was NOT a provision of the Meiji constitution? A) Japan became a constitutional monarchy. B) The right to vote was based on property qualifications. C) The emperor could disregard the recommendations of the Diet. D) The lower classes were represented in the lower chamber of the Diet. E) Individual rights were affirmed but made secondary to the needs of the state.
D) The lower classes were represented in the lower chamber of the Diet.
The Ottoman military had declined by the nineteenth century because A) the Janissary corps was more interested in palace intrigues than in military training. B) the Janissaries resisted all efforts to modernize the army. C) many provincial rulers had private mercenary armies. D) Ottoman forces carried outmoded equipment. E) All these answers are correct.
E) All these answers are correct.
The emancipation of Russian serfs in 1861 A) was achieved at the tsar's insistence. B) was intended to avert a revolution. C) brought freedom but few political rights for the peasants. D) did not significantly increase agricultural production. E) All these answers are correct.
E) All these answers are correct.
Which of the following could be considered a contributing cause of the Russian revolution of 1905? A) the lack of a representative legislative body B) the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War C) the Bloody Sunday massacre D) the government's failure to address the inequities of land ownership E) All these answers are correct.
E) All these answers are correct.
Bloody Sunday Significance
A massacre of unarmed soldiers that inspired civil unrest.
Self-Strengthening Movement Significance
A movement meant to blend Chinese culture with European industrial technology. However, there was not enough industry to make significant change.
Second Opium War: So what?
Highlighted same problems as the first - Britain wanted to keep the opium trade going, China did not. They burnt all the opium, which is somewhat of an inverse effect. Showed it was an unresolved issue. Had to welcome in Christian missionaries.
What is the author's argument about historical timing (concerning Japan and China), and in a way luck?
Japan had the benefit of seeing what happened to China.
How did tsarist Russia try to solve the problem of lack of industrialization?
Plan of industrialization (Witte)
How did tsarist Russia try to solve the problem of military defeats (Crimean war)?
Revamping and modernizing military
Empress dowager Cixi Significance
The effective ruler of China who greatly opposed radical change and later supported the Boxer Rebellion.
Commodore Matthew Perry Significance
The leader of the U.S. naval squadron that forced Japan to open up foreign relations.
Was the revolutionary approach effective or ineffective in Russia? What might have been better?
Those who revolted made gains, but not everything was satisfied.
Opium War: So what?
Trying to declare their sovereignty from the British. Unequal Treaty of Nanjing signed - large military loss. Made China recognize Britain as the most-favored-nation. Extraterritoriality. They couldn't determine the parts of the unequal treaty this time
Boxer Rebellion: So what?
An attempt at eliminating foreign influence. Lost battles against foreign embassies - forced to give up more of their power. One last attempt at re-asserting cultural pride and xenophobia.
Treaty of Nanjing
An unequal treaty written in the wake of the Opium War. Opened British right to opium trade. Ceded Hong Kong to Britain, opened 5 Chinese ports (including Guangzhou + Shanghai), gave Britain 'most-favored-nation' status, British extraterritoriality, and governed many foreign relations.
Pogroms Significance
Anti-Jewish riots that broke out in suspicion of Jewish people during times of Russification.
Tanzimat legal reforms included all of the following rights EXCEPT A) equality before the law for all subjects. B) public trials in civil courts. C) the right to privacy. D) women's right to sue for divorce. E) None of these is correct, because all were among the Tanzimat legal reforms.
D) women's right to sue for divorce.
Abdul Hamid Significance
Dissolved parliament, suspended constitution,, exiled and executed many liberals, trying to rule autocratically.
Zemstvos
District assemblies to deal with issues of local health, welfare, and education, with representatives from all classes. Despite having representatives, it remained subordinate to tsarist autocracy and landowning nobility.
Factors Contributing to Ottoman Decline
1699 Final defeat to Austria Forced to sign peace treaty Trade routes can now circumvent the Ottoman Empire Economic decline Capitulations Janissary revolts - the backbone of the military going against the empire (divided and weakened military) Military strength and technology superiority declines
Boxer Rebellion
A Cixi-supported antiforeign uprising. Spearheaded by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists - referred to as the Boxers by the foreign press. Boxers went on a rampage to kill and expel "foreign devils" and Chinese Christians. Faced crushing defeat by European and Japanese troops at Beijing, eventually forced to let foreigners put troops along the sea route. Due to Cixi instigating the Boxers' attacks, many considered the Qing dynasty bankrupt.
Mahmud II
A survivor of a Janissary revolt who became sultan. Led his own, careful reforms for the military. Still, Janissaries mutinied in protest, but Mahmud II had them massacred. Remodeled the Ottoman Empire to be more based on European lines, creating more effective armies with European outfits, education, and weapons. Transferred power from traditional elites to the sultan and cabinet through taxes, abolishing military land grants, and undermining Islamic leadership. By his death, the empire had shrunk, but had more power.
Crimean War Significance
A war between Russia and a coalition of Britain, the Ottoman Empire, France, and Sardinia after Russia tried to take over the Ottoman empire.
By 1913, all of the following provinces gained either independence or autonomy from Ottoman control EXCEPT A) Anatolia. B) Egypt. C) Greece. D) Serbia. E) None of these is correct, because all gained either independence or autonomy.
A) Anatolia.
The success of the Meiji restoration depended on destroying the power of A) the daimyo and samurai classes. B) the emperor and his court. C) the Japanese military. D) independent merchants. E) All these answers are correct.
A) the daimyo and samurai classes.
Pogroms
Anti-Jewish riots that broke out in suspicion of Jewish people during an era of Russification. Usually due to jealousy over Jewish business success. Jewish people migrated to west Europe and the United States so as to escape this cruel treatment.
In China, a "sphere of influence" was a A) city designated for trade between Chinese and European merchants. B) Christian mission where Chinese converts could live free of state persecution. C) district in which a foreign power had exclusive trade, transportation, and mineral rights. D) tributary state beyond the borders of the empire that paid taxes to the Qing dynasty in exchange for protection. E) state-sponsored academy based on European science.
C) district in which a foreign power had exclusive trade, transportation, and mineral rights
The "capitulations" were humiliating concessions to the west that A) allowed western powers to establish spheres of influence within Ottoman territory. B) forbade the manufacture of cotton cloth and obliged Ottomans to buy textiles from Britain. C) held European citizens exempt from Ottoman laws and taxes. D) restricted the exchange of technology and prevented the emergence of domestic industry in the Ottoman empire. E) permitted unrestricted traffic in and out of the Black Sea.
C) held European citizens exempt from Ottoman laws and taxes.
What were all of the features of the Taiping reform program?
Called for the end of the Qing dynasty and Manchu rule. It called for radical reform, appealing to millions. Called for the abolition of private property, communal wealth, the end of foot-binding and concubinage, free education, and literacy. Also sought democratic political institutions and industrial society, as well as gender equality.
How did China and Japan respond differently to the incursions or pressures from the West to open? Why did they respond differently and what were the consequences for their nations?
China still kept within themselves and refused to change their mind - eventually breaking when Europe comes in. Japan, on the other hand, ended up complying and embracing it just a bit more. China resisted foreign influence some more, while Japan didn't really try resistance. Japan saw their weakness, seeing in part what the west could do. Had some advance notice. Knew that fighting back would be futile, and by engaging with the West, Japan ended up becoming better. Japan was able to control the terms a little bit more to their advantage.
Boxer Rebellion Significance
Cixi and the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists' anti-foreign rebellion. Eventually crushed and symbolized the 'bankruptcy' of the Qing dynasty.
Soviets Significance
Councils created to organize strikes and negotiate with authorities.
Soviets
Councils created to organize strikes and negotiate with authorities. Members were elected delegates from factories and workshops.
Capitulations & extraterritoriality Significance
European domination of Ottoman economy. Agreements that exempted European visitors from Ottoman law and provided European powers with extraterritoriality - the right to exercise jurisdiction over their own citizens according to their own laws.
Spheres of Influence: So what?
Foreign countries having control over china. Ended Chinese sovereignty
Hong Xiuquan & Society of God Worshipers
Hong Xiuquan was once a village school teacher, who after getting sick after failing civil service exams, realized that he was Jesus's brother. He led the Society of God Worshipers and the Taiping rebellion. Called for the end of the Qing dynasty and Manchu rule in a program for radical reform, appealing to millions. Called for the abolition of private property, communal wealth, gender equality (but no intercourse between followers), democratic political institutions, and industrialization. Was incredibly popular in Southeast China and took Nanjing as capital of the Taiping (Great Peace) Kingdom. After many losses, Hong Xiuquan largely withdrew from public affairs and eventually committed suicide in 1864, leading to the fall of Nanjing and the rebellion.
China at the start of the 20th century:
Humiliated Loss control/sovereignty Dependent on others Internally divided, unstable Drug-addicted Broke Culturally insecure
Mahmud II Significance
Made the Ottoman empire more manageable and powerful. Remodeled it to be based on European lines, transferring power to a sultan and cabinet.
What is the first weakness that the empires that fell shared and how did this specifically contribute to their downfalls?
Militarily, they would wage wars only to realize that they were not very modernized and much weaker than they really thought.
How did reformers respond to their countries' challenges and problems?
New constitutions to limit the power and authority of rulers and give more power and equality to the people. Getting rid of absolute monarchy.
How was Russian society very different from Western Europe's in the 19th century?
Russian society at the time was incredibly multicultural. Only about half of the population spoke Russian, and there was a powerful elite class that harshly treated serfs.
List the four formerly strong societies that experience downfalls in the 19th century.
The Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire, Qing China, and Tokugawa Japan
Diet Significance
The legislative house of the new constitutional government. Was composed of a house of nobles and an elected lower house. Provided an opportunity for debate and dissent.
Which of the author's arguments resonates with you as most compelling for explaining the differences between China and Japan by the end of the 19th century?
The point that Japan was a bit more open to accepting western influence after seeing what had happened to China.
Serfdom was officially abolished, so why then did this continue to be a problem?
Was abolished, but the newly emancipated serfs had no rights or any way to make money. No land, no money, no rights.
Self-Strengthening Movement
the self-strengthening movement (1860 - 1895), empowering local leaders with grants and promoting military and economic reform. "Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for use," - blended Chinese culture with European industrial technology. Built shipyards, railroads, weapon industries, steel foundries, and academies. Kept Confucian values while seeking to re-establish agrarian society. Only brought superficial change, however, and imperial government diverted money for the navy for their own commodities. There was not enough industry to make significant change. A movement of contradiction - industrialization would bring fundamental social change, and education would only undermine Confucian values.
Why did people switch to heroin, and why have death rates spiked?
There is somewhat of a trend of former opioid users switching to heroin, and as people switched, the heroin supply became more dangerous. Heroin dosage used to not be tested, but have since begun to.
Empress dowager Cixi
A former concubine who became the effective ruler of China for the last 50 years of the Qing dynasty. Encouraged regional armies to crush the Taiping rebellion, opposed the changes of the self-strengthening movement, ended the Hundred Days reforms, and later supported The Boxer Rebellion to expel foreigners from China.
The Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown because A) the Japanese were outraged by the unequal treaty forced on them by Commodore Perry. B) the samurai were in debt to the merchant class. C) the emperor had failed in his obligations to protect the Japanese people. D) the daimyo led a tax revolt. E) Japanese merchants wanted more access to western goods and technology.
A) the Japanese were outraged by the unequal treaty forced on them by Commodore Perry.
Treaty of Nanjing Significance
An unequal treaty between China and Britain after the Opium War. Gave Britain a large amount of rights, including Opium trade and other privileges.
Why has opioid use soared in recent years?
As prescription for opioid began to soar, so did addiction, leading to even more profits in the opioid department.
Sino-Japanese War: So what?
China and Japan fighting over Korea. China lost - Japan crushed it. Showed military weakness in China and also made Japan a major country.
Which of the following was NOT part of Witte's policy of industrialization? A) construction of the trans-Siberian railroad B) banking reform to encourage domestic savings and investment C) protective tariffs to support emerging Russian industries D) nationalization of key industries such as coal and steel E) promotion of foreign investment in Russian industry
D) nationalization of key industries such as coal and steel
Why was Witte's system so effective? Why did it stop working?
Definitely helped bring industrialization to Russia, but the system in which it was managed and established was rather harsh and unsuccessful. Succeeded in bringing industrialization, just with poor execution.
How was the government reformed in Japan? What were the limits to these reforms?
Domestic pressure pushed for a constitution and representative government, and in 1889, the emperor "gifted" Japan with a constitutional government. Under Ito Hirobumi's guidance, a constitutional monarchy with the legislative Diet (composed of nobles and elected lower house) was formed as an opportunity for debate and dissent. Constitution limited Diet's authority, considerable power was given to the executive branch, and the emperor remained supreme. The emperor commanded the military, appointed cabinet, and named prime minister. The prime minister and cabinet were more responsible to the emperor than the lower cabinet. The Diet could advise the emperor but never control him. Individual rights were recognized, but law could limit them when it was seemed fit. Lower house represented prosperous classes, and only less than 5% of the adult male population could actually vote, leading to debate.
Capitulations & extraterritoriality
European domination of Ottoman economy. Agreements that exempted European visitors from Ottoman law and provided European powers with extraterritoriality - the right to exercise jurisdiction over their own citizens according to their own laws. Signed first out of desperation, quickly regarded as humiliating intrusions on sovereignty. Instruments of economic penetration, but in the early 20th century, the Ottoman state lacked the resources needed for bureaucracy. Europeans could operate tax-free, levy own duties in Ottoman ports. Deprived Empire of desperately needed income. European merchants only follow their own laws while in the Ottoman empire. Started as an attempt to form foreign investment.
How did the Ottoman's debt spiral into a vicious negative cycle?
European imports flowered into Ottoman markets, often inexpensive and high-quality placing pressure on Ottoman artisans. Plenty of riots led to reduced imports, moving toward a fiscal insolvency and financial dependency. Heavy foreign dependency led to a point where they did not have enough money to pay interest on loans. Had to accept foreign administration of its debts. Foreigners began to administer Ottoman debts by 1882. Then capitulations came to play - agreements that exempted European visitors from Ottoman law and provided European powers with extraterritoriality - the right to exercise jurisdiction over their own citizens according to their own laws. Signed first out of desperation, quickly regarded as humiliating intrusions of sovereignty. Lacked the resources needed for bureaucracy. Started as an attempt to gain foreign investment and money, only to end up in European debt.
Why did the British turn to the opium trade?
European trade at Guangzhou was seriously restricted and controlled. Cohongs - licensed Chinese firms where foreign merchants faced strict trading regulations. China had lots to offer, but very little interest for European products. Therefore, they went for the Opium trade, a desperate, criminal attempt for Europe to seek alternatives to bullion for Chinese goods. The East India Company grew opium in India, shipped it to India, gained silver coins, then used the silver to trade for goods in Guangzhou. Rapid growth of the industry allowed the East India company to pay for luxury goods. Despite the fact that the opium trade was illegal, but many officers benefitted, so they didn't enforce that law. About 40,000 chests of opium shipped to China yearly by 1838. Eventually, the government realized the trade was illegal and that it caused a ton of social change. The government tried to stop it, so Britain ended up losing a lot of money.
Crimean War
Expansion east to manchuria, south to Caucasus and central Asia, Southwest to the Mediterranean. Sought access to Mediterranean sea, moved on Balkans controlled by Ottomans. Defeated Turkish part of Ottoman Empire and tried to establish a protectorate over it. By threatening the balance of power, Russia was now in conflict with a coalition of Britain, the Ottoman Empire, France, and Sardinia. Russia could not handle the conflict, facing a humiliating defeat on own territory. The crushing defeat forced tsars to take radical steps to modernize the army industry.
How did Japan open up to foreign commerce?
Foreign powers (especially the U.S.) really wanted to establish relationships with Japan. Japan refused, only letting a small amount of Dutch merchants in. The U.S. naval squadron went to Tokyo Bay, led by Commodore Matthew C. Perry, changed the situation. The U.S. trained guns on Edo, forced Japan to sign a treaty of friendship, and through unequal treaties, foreign commerce opened, government lost control over tariffs, and extraterritoriality came into play.
What's good and bad about large, powerful empire?
Good: Can provide protection for those within it, multiculturalism, innovation, tolerance. Lots of resources and economic advantages. Strong army, well-defended borders. Diversity of resources and people. More stable world order. Bad: The paradox of tolerance. The larger it is, the harder it is to truly control, causing easy corruption and gaps between classes. Difficult communication within the vast empire. Lots of resources become expensive to administer throughout large empire. Huge target on your back. Difficult time controlling rebellions.
What were the outcome and consequences of the Taiping Rebellion?
Hong and the Society of God Worshippers took Nanjing as the capital of the Taiping (Great Peace) kingdom. The Taiping following greatly grew throughout China. However, the Chinese gentry sided with the Qing government to support the preservation of established order. After losses to the Taipings, Empress dowager Cixi of the Qing government created regional armies of Manchu leaders and scholar-gentry leaders. Regional armies eventually overcame the Taipings with European weapons, and Hong Xiuquan withdrew from the public, eventually committing suicide in 1864. Nanjing and the rebellion fell. There were many tolls of the rebellion: it claimed many lives and led to agricultural decline. However, due to the rebellion, Qing rulers realized that changes were necessary for the empire to survive.
How was Hong Xiuquan's experience growing up a reflection of a typical problem in Chinese society?
Hong was a young man raised in a poor farming town. He was smart and took the civil service exam many different times, but never seemed to pass, falling into an emotional collapse, and becoming a teacher. Failing the civil service exam due to a lack of proper education. Lack of opportunity to improve life. The aim of the civil service exam (improve life for all) didn't really work...
What were the ideas of the intelligentsia, especially the anarchists?
Intelligentsia - students and intellectuals seeking political reform through social change. They were European-based with a socialist slant. Many protesters were anarchists - believed that the full potential of humanity would be revealed without a government.
Prior to the 19th century, China was:
Inward perfection Sovereign Powerful Stable Xenophobic, sense of superiority (unequal treaties by foreigners - China dictates the terms) Culturally sound, proud (Confucian hierarchy) Wealthy Expanse-minded
hat was the basis of Hong Xiuquan's program? What can we infer from the scale and scope of its impact on society?
Joined the Society of God-Worshipers, leading over a million followers in a rebellion against the Qing dynasty. Became the "heavenly king" of the Taiping rebellion. If you're the brother of Jesus, it seems like things will generally go your way. Pushing for equality against a corrupt society in the eyes of G-d.
What were the main ideas behind the Hundred Days Reforms, and what was its fate?
Kang Youwei (1858-1927) and Liang Qichao (1873-1929) published treatises that reinterpreted Confucian ideals to justify radical change in the imperial system, wanting to remake China into a powerful industrial society. Emperor Guangxu launched a reform program, turning China into a constitutional monarchy, guaranteeing civil liberties, rooting out corruption, remodeling the educational system, encouraging foreign influence, modernizing military, and stimulating economic development. Other imperials hated this reform. After 103 days, empress dowager Cixi ended the reforms, imprisoned the emperor, and killed reform leaders. Kang and Liang just barely escaped to Japan.
What were some of the factors causing discontent in China that would fuel rebellions?
Land production and resources were strained due to a population growth of around 50%. Unequal treaties had also brought lots of content, being that there was official corruption and drug corruption all throughout the dynasty. There were four major rebellions: the Nian Rebellion (1851-1868), Muslim Rebellion (1855-1873), Tungan Rebellion (1862-1878), and the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)
What were the causes of the Ottoman Empire's military decline? What was the main effect politically?
Limits of expansion. Lost many battles to Austria and Russia - lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia; western frontiers to Austria; Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia. Was behind European army in strategy, tactics, weapons, and training. Janissaries established coups and became a strong Ottoman political group, politically corrupt and disciplined. Due to internal struggle, external powers could find strength. The loss of military strength led to the loss of military control.
How did the persecution of Jews fit into a larger plan of Russification?
Making it so that Russia was purely "Russians" in sense of religion and the such. Getting rid of any potential opposers to the system, as many radicals were Jewish. Eliminating the diversity in Russia. Either leave or assimilate.
What were the main economic reforms undertaken by Japan? What were the consequences of these reforms (good and bad)?
Modern transportation, communications, and educational system were brought. Tied local areas to a national economic network, also removing barriers of commerce by abolishing guild restriction and tariffs. Universal education helped industrialization and economy. The government controlled military industry and sold enterprises to a small group of powerful people known as zaibatsu. Social and political costs came from rapid industrialization, however. Peasants lost a lot of money thanks to land tax (taxes were based on land potential instead of actual production), leading to a series of peasant rebellions against moneylenders. The government did nothing to help the rural population's suffering and malnutrition, crushing rebellion. It also refused to tolerate labor unions and had no welfare, treating unions and strikes as criminal.
Muhammad Ali
Napoleon had tried to take over Egypt but horribly failed, but led to turmoil in Egypt with elites fighting over power. The winner was Muhammad Ali, a general who led a powerful European-inspired army. Ruled 1805-1848. Drafted peasants, sought outside military help, launched industrialization, became the effective Egyption leader, nearly toppled Ottoman Empire (stopped by Britain out of fear of Ottoman collapse leading to Russian expansion.) Became essentially autonomous.
Describe in general what it was like being Jewish in Russia.
Not good at all. Constant persecution and judgement, hardly ever being accepted into schools, being forced fines that gentiles were not, etc. Practically an even lower state that second-class citizens - murdered in the streets. Police didn't even pretend to care about Jewish safety.
How did reform movements fare in all four countries?
Not so well, but it was SUPER successful in Japan. Mixed success for the Ottomans, the Russians eventually collapsed, and China fell a bit later than Russia, really struggling with these reforms. Rebellion and turmoil
Trans-Siberian railway
Opened Siberia to exploitation, settlement, and industrialization.
Trans-Siberian railway Significance
Opened up Siberia for connections.
What were some of the consequences for China?
Opium is highly addictive, and over ⅓ of the male Chinese population had begun to smoke it. The harmful addictiveness of the drug and the efforts to stop it ended up leading to the opium war.
To what extent did emancipation improve the life of serfs or of Russian society?
Opposition to serfdom was common in even high classes. Was the key to social reform. Serfdom was economically inefficient, caused rural instability, and peasant revolts. It was determined that it was better to stop serfdom before revolts ended it, and although serfs were emancipated, had labor obligations canceled, and gained ability to own land, they had no political rights and they had to face a redemption tax. Many emancipated serfs found themselves in heavy debt, and emancipation did not increase agricultural production.
Which former Ottoman state became an independent and powerful rival?
Ottomans kept Anatolia and Iraq, but lost territory most everywhere else. Russia and Austria absorbed land, some areas sought independence. Lost Egypt since it gained autonomy. Napoleon had tried to take over Egypt but horribly failed, leading to turmoil in Egypt. Elites fought over power, with Muhammad Ali winning. He had a powerful European-inspired army. Drafted peasants, sought outside military help, launched industrialization, became the effective Egyptian leader, nearly toppled the Ottoman Empire (stopped only by Britain out of fear of Ottoman collapse leading to Russian expansion). Became essentially autonomous.
Taiping Rebellion: So what?
Peasantry realizing their conditions - led to some concerns and awareness of problems within the country. China is no longer a strong, stable government. People began to question confucianism. Outside help was required to end the rebellion.
How were the circumstances similar in which both China and Japan found themselves during the 19th century?
Peasants were unhappy with unjust treatment and both faced pressure from outside countries desiring foreign relations as well as the fact that they lacked the industrialization that western countries had. Plenty of internal rebellions within the divided population, and a government that was struggling to put said rebellions down. Conflict between conservatism and liberalism - old and new.
What happened once the Ottoman empire decreased in size?
Power vacuum and struggle for power of new, open territory once the Ottoman Empire decreased in size. Palestinian-Israeli conflict resulted
Count Sergei Witte
Prime mover of industrialization in Russia - minister of finance. Put forth policies to stimulate economic development. Also had railroad development and remodeled bank systems and supported infant industries. Secured foreign loans. After revolution, he requested legislative assembly.
How did tsarist Russia try to solve the problem of economic weakness?
Protective tariffs, stronger state bank, loans from Western Europe (Witte)
Self-Strengthening Movement: So what?
Purely superficial - ended up using money on needless commodities. A direct response to the opium wars. An unsuccessful attempt to be sovereign again.
Russia did industrialize, why then did this continue to be a problem?
REALLY really bad working conditions and people were extremely poor. Harsh conditions, low pay.
Abdul Hamid
Radical dissidents from Ottoman bureaucracy seized power in a coup, installing Abdul Hamid as sultan (1876-1909). Hamid accepted constitution to limit his authority and assemble representative government. Did not last long, dissolving parliament, suspending constitution, exiled and executed many liberals. Autocratically ruled to rescue from dismemberment by European powers. Developed according to Tanzimat principles. Faced lots of liberal opposition, and his own reforms such as education ended up undermining him due to the education of liberal ideas. Hamid got exiled, society realized that what was needed was a sultan with checks and balances.
What were the main problems of tsarist Russia?
Rebellion People who didn't follow Russification Self-defense Lack of foreign investment Hard communication in large area Loss at war Peaceful petition Civil unrest and mutinies Government Military defeats (Crimean war) Serfdom (Oppression of peasants) Economic weakness Lack of industrialization Social unrest (increasing radicalism) Peasants lack rights and voice Loss to Japan over Manchuria
How did tsarist Russia try to solve the problem of lack of peasant rights and voice?
Reforms to give more say to peasants (October manifesto, political rights, freedom of speech, zemstvos, 1906 Constitution and Duma)
How did the tsarist government respond to dissent?
Repression. Anarchists and radicals tried to spread their message to peasants, only to be arrested. Tsarist authorities censored publications and sent out secret police. However, repression led to more radicalism. Tsarist autocracy was opposed in Baltic provinces, Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, and Central Asia. People of different cultures formed separatist groups, but these groups were still often repressed.
Meiji restoration
Return to imperial rule. A civil war took place in Japan, resulting in the Tokugawa government falling. The shogun lost and resigned, and boy emperor Mutsuhito (otherwise known as Meiji ('Enlightened Rule')) took power, reigning during the most eventful time of Japanese history. Ended almost seven centuries of military rule in Japan. Under the meiji period, foreign influence was recognized, social order changed, the tax system was revamped, the economy was remodeled, and a constitutional government was put into place.
Meiji restoration Significance
Return to imperial rule. The new Meiji government led plenty of reform in Japan, including the recognition of foreign influence, decrease in daimyo and samurai power, revamping of the tax system, remodeling of the government, and the placement of a constitutional government.
What is the second weakness that the empires that fell shared and how did this specifically contribute to their downfalls?
Serious domestic turmoil due to population pressures, agricultural decline, famine, failing government, etc. led to peasant rebellions or internal factions. Political divisions, economic differences, etc.
What were the main ideas behind the Tanzimat? Who most strongly opposed it and why?
Tanzimat - reorganization era. Western-based educational, legal, and military reforms (enlightenment-based). Wanted to appease Europeans with new law reforms, aiming to have capitulations lifted and Ottoman sovereignty regained. Protected rights such as public trials, privacy, equality before law despite religion. Legal and educational reforms undermined ulama. There was great criticism from conservatives arguing that the new order threatened Islamic foundation. Young Ottomans desired constitutional government. Some minority leaders and Ottoman bureaucracy opposed as well.
What were the factors leading to the Russian revolutionary turmoil of 1905?
Terrorism was a huge factor: the Land and Freedom party promoted assassination of political figures in order to gain political reform. The People's Will assassinated Alexander II, who had started social reform, and Nicholas II took the throne and championed police control and oppression. Attempted expansion to Asia provoked the Russo-Japanese war, which destroyed the Russian navy. Military defeats lowered morale and triggered widespread disturbances, and the Bloody Sunday massacre - the massacre of 130 unarmed petitioners - provoked civil unrest.
In what sense was the Boxer Rebellion the "nail in the coffin" of the Qing Dynasty?
The Boxer Rebellion was the empress dowager Cixi-supported antiforeign uprising. Spearheaded by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists - referred to as the Boxers by foreign press. Boxers went on a rampage to kill and expel "foreign devils" and Chinese Christians, but having lost a battle at Beijing, the Qing dynasty was forced to let foreigners put troops along the sea route. Due to Cixi instigating the Boxers' attacks, many Chinese considered the the Qing dynasty to be bankrupt. Cixi later died a mysterious death, placing 2-year-old Puyi on the throne. Unfortunately for him, revolution broke out and the throne had been abdicated. The Qing dynasty later collapsed in 1912.
How effective were the Young Turks at reforming the Ottoman Empire?
The Ottoman Society for Union and Progress. Founded by exiled Ottomans exiled in Paris. Promoted reform, using newspapers to spread their belief - universal suffrage, equality by the law, education, etc. Dethroned Hamid and put up puppet sultan Mehmed V Rashid - sultan's now became figureheads. Achieved Turkish hegemony. Lots of support outside Anatolia. Favored Turkish dominance within the empire, leading to Arab resistance. European diplomats couldn't agree on how to dispose the Ottoman empire without upsetting the balance of power, so the Ottoman Empire remained.
Besides arriving later, how else were industrialization and its effects similar and different for Russia relative to Western Europe?
The Witte System led to railroad development and remodeled bank systems. However, peasant rebellion indicated disdain toward the Witte System's low standard of living. People worked under harsh factory conditions for low wages, and St. Petersburg and Moscow were exceptionally dreadful. Unions and strikes were illegal. The upper class and entrepreneurs managed to face benefits, however. Mainly because they supported the autocracy.
How were China and Japan different in their impressions of the West?
The author believed that China thought that the west was completely inferior, while Japan was more able to embrace the west and was not too stubborn to learn about the west.
Hong Xiuquan & Society of God Worshipers Significance
The backbone of the Taiping rebellion, calling for the end of Qing dynasty and Manchu rule. A program for radical reform, appealing to millions.
Tokugawa bakufu Significance
The era before the Meiji and after the warring states period. Bakufu was the tent government meant to temporarily be in place while fixing Japan. Had harsh crop failures, famines, taxation, and peasant protests. Lost a civil war, resulting in the meiji restoration
Commodore Matthew Perry
The leader of the U.S. naval squadron in Tokyo bay, who eventually forced Japan to establish foreign relations. Trained guns on Edo, forcing Japan to sign an unequal treaty of frenships. Due to this, foreign commerce opened, the Japanese government lacked control over tariffs, and extraterritoriality was gained.
Diet
The legislative house of the new constitutional government. Was composed of a house of nobles and an elected lower house. Provided an opportunity for debate and dissent. The constitution limited the Diet's authority, and considerable power was given to the executive branch. The Diet could advise the emperor but never control him. The lower house represented prosperous classes.
What is recommended to combat the opioid epidemic?
The medical community needs to stop overprescribing opioids, as it can be lethal or cause addictions. Buprenorphine and methadone maintenance can be done in order to help those struggling with opioid addiction.
Count Sergei Witte Significance
The prime mover of industrialization in Russia.
Describe how China was carved into spheres of influence.
The self-strengthening movement didn't prevent foreign intrusion in Chinese affairs, and the Chinese tributary states system was dismantled. France took Vietnam, Britain took Burma, Japan forced China to recognize Korean independence and cede Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula. They carved China into spheres of economic influence - each a different province. Only distrust among foreign powers prevented total dismemberment of China. Britain had Hong Kong
What were the social reforms in Japan and what was the response?
The social order was destroyed in order to centralize the government. Districts were reorganized to break up old feudal domains. Daimyo were forced to exchange land for titles of nobility. Set up governors for regional government. Abolished the samurai class - government tried to appeal to them by giving government bonds, but the value of bonds decreased. Samurai rebelled, but the new military crushed them.
Describe the problems facing Japanese society in the early nineteenth century.
There was economic hardship - declining agricultural productivity, occasional crop failures and famines, harsh taxation, and rising rice prices. Farmers had to become tenant farmers, urban poor, samurai, and daimyo faced hardship. Led to increasing peasant protest. Tokugawa bakufu led conservative reforms, initiating measures to stem social and economic decline. Was met with great resistance. Cancelled debts, abolished merchant guilds, and compelled peasants to cultivate rice. Most of these reforms were ineffective. There was also extreme foreign pressure to open up relations.
Tokugawa bakufu
Tokugawa was the shogun who ended the warring states period, bakufu was the "tent government" meant to temporarily serve while fixing up after the warring states period. The Tokugawa era's bakufu government was a military tent government. Towards the end of its reign, however, it faced plenty of economic hardship. There was declining agricultural productivity, crop failures, famines, rising rice prices, and harsh taxation. Economic hardships led to peasant protest, to which the government responded with conservative reforms, initiating measures to stem social and economic decline. It cancelled debts and abolished merchant guilds, compelling peasants to cultivate rice, and was met with great resistance. However, as foreign pressures got greater, the Tokugawa bakufu government fell. Daimyo began to get angry at the government, and a civil war resulted in Tokugawa loss.
Bloody Sunday
Workers who had marched to petition to Nicholas about popularly elected assembly and more were met with rifle fire. 130 were killed, and the word of the massacre caused civil unrest. Peasants seized property, mutinies, demonstrations, insurrections, etc.