Chapter 4
What is the distinction between attitudes and emotions?
-Attitudes also might operate nonconsciously, but we are usually aware of and consciously think about those evaluations. -Another distinction is that we experience most emotions very briefly, whereas our attitude toward someone or something is more stable over time. -Attitudes are judgments, whereas emotions are experiences. In other words, attitudes involve evaluations of an attitude object, whereas emotions operate as events, usually without our awareness.
What are the elements that help us understand attitude?
-Beliefs -Feelings -Behavioral intentions -There is now an element that represents a parallel emotional process at work
exhaustion
Most of us are able to remove the source of stress or remove ourselves from that source before becoming too exhausted. -However, people who frequently reach exhaustion have increased risk of long-term physiological and psychological damage. -Third stage
neglect
Neglect includes reducing work effort, paying less attention to quality, and increasing absenteeism and lateness. -It is generally considered a passive activity that has negative consequences for the organization.
continuance commitment
an individual's calculative attachment to an organization This calculation takes two forms. -One form occurs where an employee has no alternative employment opportunities (e.g., "I dislike working here, but there are no other jobs available."). -This condition exists where unemployment is high, employees lack the skills sought by other employers, or the employee's skills are so specialized that there is limited demand for them nearby. -The other form of continuance commitment occurs where leaving the company would be a significant financial sacrifice (e.g., "I hate this place but can't afford to quit!"). -This perceived sacrifice condition occurs when the company offers high pay, benefits, and other forms of economic exchange in the employment relationship, or where quitting forfeits a large deferred financial bonus.
affective organizational commitment
an individual's emotional attachment to, involvement in, and identification with an organization -Affective commitment is a psychological bond whereby one chooses to be dedicated to and responsible for the organization
stressors
any environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on the person -Four of the most common work-related stressors are organizational constraints, interpersonal conflict, work overload, and low task control.
What are some of the benefits/drawbacks of affective amd continuance commitment?
benefits -Employees with a strong psychological connection with the organization are less likely to quit their jobs and be absent from work. -They also have higher work motivation and organizational citizenship, as well as somewhat higher job performance. Organizational commitment also improves customer satisfaction because long-tenure employees have better knowledge of work practices and because clients like to do business with the same employees. drawbacks -One problem is that employees with very high affective commitment tend to have high conformity, which results in lower creativity. -Another problem is that these employees are motivated to defend the organization, even if it involves illegal activity. However, most companies suffer from too little rather than too much affective commitment. -employees with high levels of continuance commitment tend to have lower performance and are less likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. -Furthermore, unionized employees with high continuance commitment are more likely to use formal grievances, whereas employees with high affective commitment engage in more cooperative problem solving when employee-employer relations sour.
employee assistance programs (EAPs)
counseling services that help employees resolve marital, financial, or work-related troubles.
interpersonal conflict
dysfunctional conflict can easily flair up and, left unchecked, escalate to a level that produces considerable stress and counterproductive work behaviors. -Most interpersonal conflict is caused by structural sources such as ambiguous rules, lack of resources, and conflicting goals between employees or departments. -However, a fast-growing form of interpersonal conflict is psychological harassment, which ranges from threats and bullying to subtle yet persistent forms of incivility.89 -Sexual harassment is also a major stressor that falls within the interpersonal conflict category. -This occurs when a person's employment or job performance is conditional on unwanted sexual relations and/or the person experiences sexual conduct from others (such as posting pornographic material) that unreasonably interferes with work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment
beliefs
established perceptions about the attitude object—what you believe to be true. -Ex. you might believe that mergers reduce job security for employees in the merged firms or that mergers increase the company's competitiveness in this era of globalization. -These beliefs are perceived facts that you acquire from experience and other forms of learning. -Each of these beliefs also has a valence; that is, you have a positive or negative feeling about each belief (e.g., better job security is good).
temporarily withdrawing
from stressors is the most frequent way that employees manage stress. -happens when withdraw from stressor
eustress
is a necessary part of life because it activates and motivates people to achieve goals, change their environments, and succeed in life's challenges. -More of a positive stress
emotions
physiological, behavioral, and psychological episodes experienced toward an object, person, or event that create a state of readiness -"episodes" are very brief events that typically subside or occur in waves lasting from milliseconds to a few minutes. Emotions are directed toward someone or something -They represent changes in our physiological state (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate), psychological state (e.g., thought process), and behavior (e.g., facial expression). -most emotional changes are subtle and occur without our awareness
attitude
represent the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event (called an attitude object) -Attitudes are judgments, whereas emotions are experiences. In other words, attitudes involve evaluations of an attitude object, whereas emotions operate as events, usually without our awareness. -Can operate nonconsciously
feelings
represents your conscious positive or negative evaluations of the attitude object. -Ex. Some people think mergers are good; others think they are bad. Your like or dislike of mergers represents your assessed feelings. -According to the traditional cognitive perspective of attitudes (left side of the model), feelings are calculated from your beliefs about mergers and the associated feelings about those beliefs. Consider the example of your attitude toward mergers. If you believe that mergers typically have negative consequences such as layoffs and organizational politics, then you will form negative feelings toward mergers in general or about a specific planned merger in your organization.
Alarm reaction
stage occurs when a threat or challenge activates the physiological stress responses that were noted above. -The individual's energy level and coping effectiveness decrease in response to the initial shock. -First stage
emotional labor
the effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. -Ex. being nice to an annoying customer -demands are higher in jobs requiring a variety of emotions (e.g., anger as well as joy) and more intense emotions (e.g., showing delight rather than smiling weakly), as well as in jobs where interaction with clients is frequent and longer. -increases when employees must precisely rather than casually abide by the display rules.29 -This work requirement is most common in service industries, where employees have frequent face-to-face interaction with clients.
Emotional dissonance-
the psychological tension experienced when the emotions people are required to display are quite different from the emotions they actually experience at that moment -Most of us usually handle these discrepancies by engaging in surface acting; we pretend that we feel the expected emotion even though we actually experience a different emotion -One problem with surface acting is that it can lead to higher stress and burnout -A second problem is pretending to feel particular emotions can be challenging.
True or false? The "happy worker" hypothesis is generally true, according to major reviews of the research on this subject. In other words, there is a moderately positive relationship between job satisfaction and performance. Workers tend to be more productive to some extent when they have more positive attitudes toward their job and workplace
true
low task control
workplace stress is higher when employees lack control over how and when they perform their tasks as well as lack control over the pace of work activity. -Work is potentially more stressful when it is paced by a machine, it involves monitoring equipment, or the work schedule is controlled by someone else. -Low task control is a stressor because employees face high workloads without the ability to adjust the pace of the load to their own energy, attention span, and other resources. -Furthermore, the degree to which low task control is a stressor increases with the burden of responsibility the employee must carry.93 -Assembly-line workers have low task control, but their stress can be fairly low if their level of responsibility is also low. -In contrast, sports coaches are under immense pressure to win games (high responsibility), yet they have little control over what happens on the playing field (low task control).
behavioral intentions
represents your motivation to engage in a particular behavior regarding the attitude object.13 -Ex Upon hearing that the company will merge with another organization, you might become motivated to look for a job elsewhere or possibly to complain to management about the merger decision. -Your feelings toward mergers motivate your behavioral intentions, and which actions you choose depends on your past experience, personality, and social norms of appropriate behavior.
Resistance stage-
resistance, activates various biochemical, psychological, and behavioral mechanisms that give the individual more energy and engage coping mechanisms to overcome or remove the source of stress. -To focus energy on the source of the stress, the body reduces resources to the immune system during this stage. -This explains why people are more likely to catch a cold or some other illness when they experience prolonged stress. -Second stage
remove the stressor
There are many ways to remove the stressor, but some of the more common actions involve assigning employees to jobs that match their skills and preferences, reducing excessive workplace noise, having a complaint system that takes corrective action against harassment, and giving employees more control over the work process. -Another important way that companies can remove stressors is through work-life balance initiatives. -For example, personal leave benefits, such as maternity and paternity leave, temporarily offer employees paid nonwork time to manage special circumstances. -Telecommuting potentially improves work-life balance by reducing or eliminating commuting time and increasing flexibility to perform nonwork obligations (such as picking up the kids from school).101 Flexible work arrangements also enable employees to rearrange their time allocated to work and nonwork demands.
valence
(called core affect) signaling that the perceived object or event should be approached or avoided -Feature of all emotions -Could be positive or negative
What are some individual differences in stress?
-One contributing factor is the employee's physical health. Regular exercise and a healthy lifestyle produce a larger store of energy to cope with stress. -A second individual difference is the coping strategy employees use to ward off a particular stressor.94 -People sometimes figure out ways to remove the stressor or to minimize its presence. Seeking support from others, reframing the stressor in a more positive light, blaming others for the stressor, and denying the stressor's existence are some other coping mechanisms -Personality is the third and possibly the most important reason why people experience different levels of stress when faced with the same stressor.96 Individuals with low neuroticism (high emotional stability) usually experience lower stress levels because, by definition, they are less prone to anxiety, depression, and other negative emotions.
Why do satisfied employees tend to produce happier and more loyal customers?
-One explanation is that job satisfaction tends to put employees in a more positive mood, and people in a good mood more naturally and frequently display friendliness and positive emotions. This "rubs off" on the customers -second explanation is that satisfied employees are less likely to quit their jobs, so they have more work experience (i.e., better knowledge and skills) to serve clients. Lower turnover also enables customers to have the same employees serve them, so there is more consistent service. Some evidence indicates that customers build their loyalty to specific employees, not to the organization, so keeping employee turnover low tends to build customer loyalty.
What are problems with job satisfaction surveys?
-One problem is that surveys often use a single direct question, such as "How satisfied are you with your job?" Many dissatisfied employees are reluctant to reveal their feelings in a direct question because this is tantamount to admitting that they made a poor job choice and are not enjoying a large part of their life. -A second problem is that cultural values make it difficult to compare job satisfaction across countries. People in China and Japan tend to subdue their emotions in public, and there is evidence that they also avoid extreme survey ratings such as "very satisfied." -A third problem is that job satisfaction changes with economic conditions. Employees with the highest job satisfaction in current surveys tend to be in countries where the economies are chugging along quite well.50
Why does job satisfaction affect employee performance only to some extent?
-One reason is that general attitudes (such as job satisfaction) don't predict specific behaviors very well. As the EVLN model explained, reduced performance (a form of neglect) is only one of four possible responses to dissatisfaction. -A second reason is that some employees have little control over their performance because their work effort is paced by technology or interdependence with coworkers in the production process. An assembly-line worker, for instance, installs a fixed number of windshields each hour with about the same quality of installation whether he or she has high or low job satisfaction. -A third consideration is that job performance might cause job satisfaction, rather than vice versa.61 Higher performers tend to have higher satisfaction because they receive more rewards and recognition than do low-performing employees. The connection between job satisfaction and performance isn't stronger because many organizations do not reward good performance very well.
voice
Voice is any attempt to change, rather than escape from, the dissatisfying situation. -Voice can be a constructive response, such as recommending ways for management to improve the situation, or it can be more confrontational, such as filing formal grievances or forming a coalition to oppose a decision. -In the extreme, some employees might engage in counterproductive behaviors to get attention and force changes in the organization.
General adaptation syndrome-
a model of the stress experience, consisting of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion
job satisfaction
a person's evaluation of his or her job and work context\ -an appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment, and emotional experiences at work. -Satisfied employees have a favorable evaluation of their jobs, based on their observations and emotional experiences. -is best viewed as a collection of attitudes about different aspects of the job and work context. You might like your coworkers but be less satisfied with your workload, for instance.
emotional intelligence (EI)
a set of abilities to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in oneself and others -Revolves around 4 dimensions: yourself, others, recognition of emotions, and regulation of emotions
service profit chain model
a theory explaining how employees' job satisfaction influences company profitability indirectly through service quality, customer loyalty, and related factors -begins with workplace practices that increase or decrease job satisfaction. The resulting level of satisfaction then influences whether employees stay (employee retention) as well as their motivation and behavior on the job. Retention, motivation, and behavior affect service quality, which influences the customer's satisfaction, perceived value of the service, and tendency to recommend the service to others (referrals). These customer activities influence the company's profitability and growth.
change stress perception
How much stress employees experience depends on how they perceive the stressor.104 -Consequently, another way to manage stress is to help employees improve their self-concept so job challenges are not perceived as threatening. -Personal goal setting and self-reinforcement also can reduce the stress that people experience when they enter new work settings. In addition, research suggests that some (but not all) forms of humor can improve optimism and create positive emotions by taking some psychological weight off a stressful situation
Explain how emotions influence the workplace:
In fact, emotions may have a greater influence because they often occur before cognitive processes and, consequently, influence the latter.
loyalty
In the original version of this model, loyalty was not an outcome of dissatisfaction. Rather, it predicted whether people chose exit or voice (i.e., high loyalty resulted in voice; low loyalty produced exit).55 More recent writers describe loyalty as an outcome, but in various and somewhat unclear ways. -Generally, they suggest that "loyalists" are employees who respond to dissatisfaction by patiently waiting—some say they "suffer in silence"—for the problem to work itself out or be resolved by others.56
withdraw from the stressor
Removing the stressor may be the ideal solution, but it is often not feasible. -An alternative strategy is to permanently or temporarily remove employees from the stressor. -Permanent withdrawal occurs when employees are transferred to jobs that are more compatible with their abilities and values. -Temporarily withdrawing from stressors is the most frequent way that employees manage stress. Vacations and holidays are important opportunities for employees to recover from stress and reenergize for future challenges. -Many firms also provide innovative ways for employees to withdraw from stressful work throughout the day such as game rooms, ice cream cart breaks, nap rooms, and cafeterias that include live piano recitals.
How can one generate positive emotions at work?
Research has found that humor and fun at work—whether natural or contrived—can potentially counteract some of the negative emotions from the work itself.21 Overall, corporate leaders need to keep in mind that emotions shape employee attitudes and, as we will discuss later, attitudes influence various forms of work-related behavior.
How do people reduce the feeling of cognitive dissonance?
-One strategy is to develop more favorable attitudes toward specific features of the decision, such as forming a more positive opinion about the whiteboards' capacity to store whatever is written on them. -Two: People also are motivated to discover positive features of the decision they didn't notice earlier (e.g., the boards can change handwriting into typed text) and to discover subsequent problems with the alternatives they didn't choose (e.g., few traditional boards can be used as projection screens). -A third strategy is more indirect; rather than try to overlook the high price of the electronic whiteboards, you reduce dissonance by emphasizing how your other decisions have been frugal. This framing compensates for your expensive whiteboard fling and thereby maintains your self-concept as a thrifty decision maker. Each of these mental acrobatics maintains some degree of consistency between the person's behavior (buying expensive whiteboards) and attitudes (being thrifty)
How do emotions influence attitude and behavior?
-Our brain tags incoming sensory information with emotional markers based on a quick and imprecise evaluation of whether that information supports or threatens our innate drives. -These markers are not calculated feelings; they are automatic and nonconscious emotional responses based on very thin slices of sensory information.15 -The experienced emotions then influence our feelings about the attitude object. For example, Google employees experience positive emotions from the high-quality free meals, fun-oriented and friendly work spaces, ongoing learning opportunities, and supportive coworkers, all of which generate positive attitudes toward the company. -ex.Thus, while you are consciously evaluating whether the merger is good or bad, your emotions are already sending core affect (good-bad) signals, which sway your conscious evaluation. In fact, we often deliberately "listen in" on our emotions to help us consciously decide whether to support or oppose something.1
What are ways to manage with work related stress?
-Remove the stressor -Withdraw from the stressor -Change stress perceptions -Control stress consequences -Receive social support
Describe how emotions can be connected to personality:
-emotions are also partly determined by an individual's personality.26 Some people experience positive emotions as a natural trait. -People with higher emotional stability and extrovert personalities tend to experience more positive emotions. -Those with higher neuroticism (lower emotional stability) and introverted personalities tend to experience more negative emotions. -Positive and negative emotional traits affect a person's attendance, turnover, and long-term work attitudes. -Although positive and negative personality traits have some effect, other research concludes that the actual situation in which people work has a noticeably stronger influence on their attitudes and behavior.27
What are some consequences of distress?
-experience tension headaches, muscle pain, and related problems mainly due to muscle contractions from the stress response. High stress levels also contribute to cardiovascular disease, including heart attacks and strokes, and may be associated with some forms of cancer. -Stress also produces various psychological consequences such as job dissatisfaction, moodiness, depression, and lower organizational commitment. -Furthermore, various behavioral outcomes have been linked to high or persistent stress, including lower job performance, poor decision making, and increased workplace accidents and aggressive behavior. Most people react to stress through "fight or flight," so, as a form of flight, increased absenteeism is another outcome of stress.
How can emotional dissonance be reduced?
-when employees view their surface acting as a natural part of their role. -Another strategy is to engage in deep acting rather than surface acting.35 Deep acting involves visualizing reality differently, which then produces emotions more consistent with the required emotions.
Describe the 4 dimensions of emotional intelligence:
Awareness of own emotions -This is the ability to perceive and understand the meaning of our own emotions. -People with higher EI have better awareness of their emotions and are better able to make sense of them. -They can eavesdrop on their emotional responses to specific situations and use this awareness as conscious information. Management of our own emotions: -Emotional intelligence includes the ability to manage our own emotions, something that we all do to some extent. -We keep disruptive impulses in check. We try not to feel angry or frustrated when events go against us. We try to feel and express joy and happiness toward others when the occasion calls for these emotional displays. We re energize ourselves later in the workday. Notice that management of our own emotions goes beyond enacting desired emotions in a particular situation. -It also includes generating or suppressing emotions. In other words, the deep acting described earlier requires high levels of the self-regulation component of emotional intelligence. Awareness of others emotions: -This is the ability to perceive and understand the emotions of other people.38 It relates to empathy—having an understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situations of others ( This ability includes understanding the other person's situation, experiencing his or her emotions, and knowing his or her needs, even when unstated. -Awareness of others' emotions also includes being organizationally aware, such as sensing office politics and the presence of informal social networks Management of others emotions -This dimension of EI refers to managing other people's emotions. It includes consoling people who feel sad, emotionally inspiring team members to complete a class project on time, getting strangers to feel comfortable working with you, and dissipating coworker stress and other dysfunctional emotions that they experience
Describe the hierarchy of emotional intelligence:
Awareness of your own emotions is lowest in that hierarchy because you need that awareness to engage in the higher levels of EI. -You can't manage your own emotions if you don't know what they are (i.e., low self-awareness). Managing other people's emotions is the highest level of EI because this ability requires awareness of your own and others' emotions. -To diffuse an angry conflict between two employees, for example, you need to understand the emotions they are experiencing and manage your emotions (and display of emotions).
work overload
Employees are under pressure to complete more work with more effort than they can provide within the allotted time.91 -Work overload is evident when employees consume more of their personal time to get the job done. -Technology and globalization also contribute to work overload because they tether employees to work for more hours of the day. -People increasingly work with coworkers in distant time zones, and their communication habits of being constantly "on" make it difficult to separate work from personal life. Some employees amplify their work overload by adopting an "ideal worker norm" in which they expect themselves and others to work longer hours. -For many, toiling away far beyond the normal workweek is a badge of honor, a symbol of their superhuman capacity to perform above others. For example, 39 percent of millennial employees in one recent large-scale survey admitted that they work long hours and have a 24/7 schedule so they look like a "work martyr" to their boss.
control stress consequence
Keeping physically fit and maintaining a healthy lifestyle are effective stress management strategies because they control stress consequences. -Good physical fitness reduces the adverse physiological consequences of stress by helping employees moderate their breathing and heart rate, muscle tension, and stomach acidity. T -the key variable here is physical fitness, not exercise. Exercise leads to physical fitness, but research suggests that exercise does not reduce stress symptoms among people who are not yet physically fit.106 -Various forms of meditation reduce anxiety and other symptoms of stress, but their effect on blood pressure and other physiological symptoms is minimal.107 Wellness programs also can assist in controlling the consequences of stress. -These programs inform employees about better nutrition and fitness, regular sleep, and other good health habits. Many large companies offer employee assistance programs (EAPs)—counseling services that help employees resolve marital, financial, or work-related troubles.
Describe the cognitive model of attitude:
gives the impression that we can predict behavior from each element of the individual's attitude Weaknesses Beliefs feelings link -People with the same beliefs might form quite different feelings toward the attitude object because they have different valences for those beliefs. Two employees who report to the same boss have the same belief that their boss makes them work hard. Yet one employee dislikes the boss because s/he has a negative valence toward hard work whereas the other employee has a positive valence toward hard work, and so has a positive evaluation of the boss. Contingencies -People with the same feelings toward the attitude object often develop different behavioral intentions because of their unique experiences, personal values, self-concept, and other individual differences. Finally, the model indicates that behavioral intentions are the best predictors of a person's behavior. However, the strength of this link also depends on other factors, such as the person's ability, situational factors, and possibly role ambiguity
distress
he degree of physiological, psychological, and behavioral deviation from healthy functioning. -Negative experience
Organizational constraints
includes lack of equipment, supplies, budget funding, coworker support, information, and other resources necessary to complete the required work. -Most employees experience stress because these constraints interfere with task performance, which indirectly threatens their rewards, status, and job security. -refer to situational factors, which is one of the four direct predictors of individual behavior and performance (see the MARS model in Chapter 2). -It is the only direct influence on individual performance that is beyond the employee's immediate control. -This lack of control is a powerful stressor because it threatens the individual's fundamental drive to influence his or her external environment.
exit
includes leaving the organization, transferring to another work unit, or at least trying to get away from the dissatisfying situation. -The traditional theory is that job dissatisfaction builds over time and eventually becomes strong enough that the employee is motivated to search for better work opportunities elsewhere. -This is likely true to some extent, but the more recent view is that specific "shock events" quickly energize employees to think about and engage in exit behavior. -For example, the emotional reaction you experience to an unfair management decision or a conflict episode with a coworker motivates you to look at job ads and speak to friends about job opportunities where they work. This begins the process of visualizing yourself working at another company and psychologically withdrawing from your current employer.53
Describe the ways to build and maintain affective commitment:
justice and support. -Affective commitment is higher in organizations that fulfill their obligations to employees and abide by humanitarian values such as fairness, courtesy, forgiveness, and moral integrity. -These values relate to the concept of organizational justice, which we discuss in the next chapter. Similarly, organizations that support employee well-being tend to cultivate higher levels of loyalty in return.71 Shared values. -The definition of affective commitment refers to a person's identification with the organization, and that identification is highest when employees believe their values are congruent with the organization's dominant values. -Employees also experience more positive emotions when their personal values are aligned with corporate values and actions, which increases their motivation to stay with the organization.72 Trust. -Trust refers to positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations involving risk.73 -Trust means putting faith in the other person or group. It is also a reciprocal activity: To receive trust, you must demonstrate trust. -Employees identify with and feel obliged to work for an organization only when they trust its leaders. -This explains why layoffs are one of the greatest blows to affective commitment. By reducing job security, companies reduce the trust employees have in their employer and the employment relationship.74 Organizational comprehension. -Organizational comprehension refers to how well employees understand the organization, including its strategic direction, social dynamics, and physical layout. -This awareness is a necessary prerequisite to affective commitment because it is difficult to identify with or feel loyal to something that you don't know very well. -Furthermore, lack of information produces uncertainty, and the resulting stress can distance employees from that source of uncertainty (i.e., the organization). The practical implication here is to ensure that employees develop a reasonably clear and complete mental model of the organization. -This occurs by giving staff information and opportunities to keep up to date about organizational events, interact with coworkers, discover what goes on in different parts of the organization, and learn about the organization's history and future plans.76 Employee involvement. -Employee involvement increases affective commitment by strengthening the employee's psychological ownership and social identity with the organization.77 -Employees feel part of the organization when they participate in decisions that guide the organization's future (see Chapter 6). Employee involvement also builds loyalty because it demonstrates the company's trust in its employees.
exit-voice-loyalty- neglect (EVLN)
model the four ways, as indicated in the name, that employees respond to job dissatisfaction -These ways are exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect -individual's personality, values, and self-concept are important factors in choosing which method to use. -For example, people with a high-conscientiousness personality are less likely to engage in neglect and more likely to engage in voice.
stress
most often described as an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person's well-being. -physiological and psychological condition that prepares us to adapt to hostile or noxious environmental conditions. -Our heart rate increases, muscles tighten, breathing speeds up, and perspiration increases. Our body also moves more blood to the brain, releases adrenaline and other hormones, fuels the system by releasing more glucose and fatty acids, activates systems that sharpen our senses, and conserves resources by shutting down our immune system.\ -One school of thought suggests that stress is a negative evaluation of the external environment.
display rules
norms or explicit rules requiring us within our role to display specific emotions and to hide other emotions
receive social support
occurs when coworkers, supervisors, family members, friends, and others provide emotional and/or informational support to buffer an individual's stress experience. -For instance, employees whose managers are good at empathizing experienced fewer stress symptoms than do employees whose managers were less empathetic. -Social support potentially (but not always) improves the person's optimism and self-confidence because support makes people feel valued and worthy. -Social support also provides information to help the person interpret, comprehend, and possibly remove the stressor. -For instance, to reduce a new employee's stress, coworkers could describe ways to handle difficult customers. Seeking social support is called a "tend and befriend" response to stress, and research suggests that women often take this route rather than the "fight-or-flight" response mentioned earlier.108
permanent withdrawal
occurs when employees are transferred to jobs that are more compatible with their abilities and values. -happens when withdraw from stressor
cognitive dissonance
occurs when people perceive that their beliefs, feelings, and behavior are incongruent with each other.24 -This inconsistency generates emotions (such as feeling hypocritical) that motivate the person to create more consistency by changing one or more of these elements. -occurs because your attitude (it's good to be cost conscious) is inconsistent with your behavior (buying expensive whiteboards). Most people like to think of themselves—and be viewed by others—as rational and logical. Cognitive dissonance occ
What are the two common features of emotions?
one feature is that emotions vary in their level of activation. -Some emotional experiences, such as when we are suddenly surprised, are strong enough to consciously motivate us to act without careful thought. Most emotional experiences are more subtle, but even they activate enough to make us more aware of our environment. A second feature is that all emotions have an associated valence (called core affect) signaling that the perceived object or event should be approached or avoided -qll emotions evaluate environmental conditions as good or bad, helpful or harmful, positive or negative, and so forth. Furthermore, negative emotions tend to generate stronger levels of activation than do positive emotions.
