Chapter 4 MKT 348

Memory is ___________ when you only remember the good things that happened on your last vacation but not the bad things that happened.

Selective

cocreation

consumers collaborating with companies to shape brand personality and develop new products —can go a long way toward enhancing the fit between one's personality and the brand's personality.

_______________ is greater when information is repeated at different times rather than when it is presented with a high frequency in a short time period.

Brand recall

Memory can be __________, as when you remember your friend telling you a great story about a new movie, when it was really your neighbor who told you.

Confused

When MAO is high:

Consumers can use elaborated imagery processing to engage in daydreams, fantasies, visual problem-solving, or elaborated discursive processing to think about upcoming events or work out solutions to current problems.

____________ tend to seek diverse experiences that will broaden their knowledge of a product category, whereas ___________ seek more focused experiences that will deepen their knowledge of the category

Novices, experts

When the smell of freshly baked bread still lingers in your mind right after having left a bakery.

Olfactory memory

subordinate level (taxonomic category)

The finest level of differentiation -For example, soft drinks might be subdivided into categories of diet and nondiet soft drinks.

More enduring memory is established when:

we try to relate information to prior knowledge and past experiences

When motivation, ability, and opportunity (MAO) is low:

working memory might consist of a simple reproduction of an object—for example, the word skier or a visual image of a skier.

Another important point: When consumers feel confident, they will focus on the ___________ aspects of products, whereas when they feel less confident, they will focus on __________ details.

Abstract, concrete

Consumers in a positive mood tend to think more __________, while those in a negative mood tend to think more ____________.

Abstractly, concretely

Retrieval

The process of remembering or accessing what was previously stored in memory.

The ______________ of a brand depends on consumers' ability to process relationships and accept the perceived fit between the parent brand and other products on which it appears, which can vary from culture to culture.

"Stretchability"

firms with an ___________ brand personality may have an easier time reinvigorating customer relationships after a crisis because consumers are less surprised by nonroutine experiences with such brands.

"exciting"

firms with a ________ brand personality may have difficulty re-establishing strong customer relations after a crisis because fundamental perceptions of the brand have deteriorated.

"sincere"

conceptual fluency

the ease with which the meaning of an ad or brand comes to mind and can be processed. -Positive attitudes also tend to arise

Experts differ from novices in several ways:

(1) First, expert consumers have a richer associative network with more associations, and more concrete and abstract associations linked to a concept than novices have. (2) Second, they have more graded and refined taxonomic structure of categories. (3) Third, they exhibit more flexibility in activating suitable associations (concrete or abstract) and categories (superordinate and subordinate) than novices. -make finer distinctions among brands -experts learn better which brands might be appropriate for different usage situations, organize such information by specific product subcategories, and are less motivated than novices to learn about a new product

One schema for a banana might include associations that reflect its:

(1) attributes (yellow, long, 100 calories), (2) benefits (nutritious, low in fat), (3) values (being a healthy person, a sweet tooth), (4) consumption occasions (as a snack, dessert), (5) consumption locations (at home, school), (6) brands (Turbana, Chiquita), and so on. -Consumers often use associations with brands and attributes to predict what a product's benefits will be -the associations in schemas vary in terms of how abstract or concrete they are. -Example: Locations to eat a banana are more concrete, whereas the values expressed by eating a banana are more abstract.

If the goal is to have consumers recall the brand and its associations, better brand names:

(1) evoke rich imagery (Old El Paso), (2) are novel or unexpected (Kindle), or (3) suggest the offering and its benefits (Mr. Clean).

Factors regarding being viewed as a category prototype:

(1) shared associations: A prototype shares the most associations with other members of its own category and shares the fewest with members from different categories. (2) frequency with which an object is encountered as a category member; brands with the highest market share are likely to be considered the prototype. (3) the first or "pioneer" brand in a category—such as Amazon for online books and music—may also become the prototype because it sets a standard against which later brands are compared.

Retrieval is affected by:

(1) the characteristics of the stimulus itself, (2) what the stimulus is linked to, (3) the way the stimulus is processed, and (4) the consumer's characteristics.

Consumers tend to like brand extensions more when:

(1) the new product fits in some way with the parent brand, and when (2) they really like the parent brand. Example: parent brand: Dove soap brand extension product: Dove deodorant

recirculation

-We make no active attempt to remember the information -can be transferred into long term memory Example: information is recirculated through your working memory when you encounter it repeatedly, such as when passing the harbor with a billboard advertising Malibu boats on your way to the supermarket.

Competitive advertising

-affects interference -When an established brand promotes a new attribute, consumers' knowledge of the brand's old attributes can interfere with retrieval of information about the new one. -Yet when competitive advertising is present, consumers are able to suppress older attribute information and effectively retrieve the new attribute information, an accomplishment that works to the brand's advantage.

Brands with favorable, unique, and salient associations that are meaningful to consumers have high __________ and are valuable to the company.

-brand equity —For example, GEICO, the insurance firm with the gecko brand character, wants consumers to know it offers motorcycle insurance as well as car insurance.

medium

-in which the stimulus is processed -Researchers are exploring whether certain media are more effective than others at enhancing consumer memory. -Compared to magazines, television may be more effective because it combines visual and auditory information.

Marketing Implications for Working Memory:

1. Imagery can improve the amount of information that can be processed. - Adding more information to ads, websites, or packages, like lists of attributes, can create information overload and hamper discursive processing. 2. Imagery can stimulate future choice. - improve product attitudes; for example, our choice of a vacation may be greatly influenced by what we imagine it will be like. -We value some of the products we buy (e.g., novels or music) because of the imagery they provide. 3. Realistic imagery can improve consumer satisfaction -We may create an elaborate image or fantasy of what the product or consumption experience will be like -Example: apps that let consumers browse colors on their smartphone screens and "paint" virtual rooms to envision the effect before they buy paint.

Episodic Memory for Marketing Implications

1. Promote empathy and identification. -Episodic memories can play a role in creating identification with characters or situations in ads. Example: Hefty bags ad can make consumers think about when their own garbage bags split open, consumers may relate to ads showing inferior bags splitting apart while Hefty bags remain strong 2. Cue and preserve episodic memories. -Consumers value some brands or products and have a positive attitude toward some ads because they promote episodic memories by creating feelings of nostalgia—a fondness for the past. Example: consumers want to preserve personal memories of vacations, graduations, weddings, birthdays; marketers can create products to help document these occasions 3. Reinterpret past consumption experiences. -Advertising can affect episodic memories, such as how a consumer remembers past experiences with the advertised product.

the associations in schemas vary in three dimensions that are crucial to building and maintaining strong brands:

1. favorability: Associating a banana with 100 calories might result in a favorable evaluation. 2. uniqueness: the extent to which they are also related to other concepts. - Ex: "Fast service" is not unique to McDonald's, but the Big Mac and the Egg McMuffin are. 3. salience: how easy they come to mind -Ex: For example, a consumer might always think of the Golden Arches when hearing the McDonald's name. -Brands aim to be linked to favorable, unique, salient associations.

chunks

A chunk is a group of items that are processed as a unit. -we try to create meaningful combinations of information to improve memory (working memory) For example, phone numbers are typically grouped into three chunks: the area code, the exchange, and four numbers. -Ex: BOATS (Bananas Oranges Apples Tomatoes Sardines)

script

A special type of schema that represents knowledge of a sequence of actions involved in performing an activity. -are a form of procedural knowledge -helps you complete the task quickly and easily Example: you may have a script for how to arrange roses bought from the store: You open the cellophane wrapping, get scissors, fill a vase with water, run the rose stems under water, cut them, and arrange the flowers in the vase. Example: an ad for IKEA makes you think about how to walk through the store and finish the trip with a visit to the restaurant, or how to assemble, step-by-step, the popular BILLY bookcase, if you have done this more often

retrieval cue

A stimulus that facilitates the activation of memory. -For example, if you want to remember to go to a sale at Macy's, you might leave a note on your desk that says "Macy's" -can be generated internally or externally Example: Internally, a thought can cue another thought, as in "Today is November 8. Oh no, it's my sister's birthday!" An external stimulus such as a vending machine, a viral ad video, or an in-store display could also serve as a retrieval cue.

memory can be __________ as when you remember experiences or events that actually did not happen.

Distorted

Basic level (taxonomic category)

Finer discriminations among these objects -Beverages might be more finely represented by categories such as teas, coffees, and soft drinks.

Positioning an offering as relevant to a ________ can be an important marketing objective.

Goal

taxonomic categories

How consumers classify a group of objects in memory in an orderly, often hierarchical way, based on their similarity to one another. For example, our schemas for Coke, Pepsi, Diet Coke, and other brands can be clustered in a category called soft drink

Experts tend to evaluate a brand more favorably when:

Information is presented in a way that is progressive toward their goal of making a decision and when information presented involves abstract associations (because these are motivating and experts already have assessed concrete details themselves)

Sensory memory

Input from the five senses stored temporarily in memory. Information is stored automatically and retained only briefly in sensory memory, generally from a quarter of a second to several seconds at most.

One concern of brand extensions is that:

It may make the brand schema less coherent and may dilute the brand's image -Example: a transfer of meaning from the new branded product (Dove Deodorant) to the original brand schema (Dove Soap) may take place

Co-branding activity

Lesser brands team up with dominant, prototypical brands to make use of the latter's prominence -to boost lesser brands salience in consumers minds -could potentially threaten lesser brands by overshadowing them

_____________ is not always accurate or complete and may be subject to selection, confusion, and distortion.

Memory

source confusion

Memory can be confused, as when you remember your friend telling you a great story about a new movie, when it was really your neighbor who told you. -This example is a form of source confusion because you accurately remember the story about the movie but confuse who the source of the story was.

Redundant cues

Memory is enhanced when the information items to be learned seem to go together naturally. Marketers can enhance consumers' memory for brands by advertising two complementary products together (such as Jif peanut butter with Smucker's jelly) and explaining why they go together -Ex: event sponsorship

Implicit memory

Memory without any conscious attempt at remembering something. -makes it easier to process information that we have encountered before -processing fluency or ease of processing leads to feelings of familiarity -most of our memory and this is efficient

_____________ are the main point of comparison used by consumers to categorize a new brand.

Prototypes

Three elements in particular contribute to retrieval failures:

decay, interference, and serial-position effects.

What are the 2 types of explicit memory?

Recognition and Recall

imagery processing

Representing the visual, auditory, tactile, and/or olfactory properties of an apple -We could represent it visually as a picture of an apple or in terms of its smell, its feel, what it sounds like when we bite into it, or what it tastes like. -an object in imagery processing bears a close resemblance to the thing being represented

Although categories allow us to efficiently process complex information, both the size and the number of categories can affect our perceptions of _________ and ___________.

Risk and outcome

Salience

Salient objects tend to attract attention and induce greater elaboration, thereby creating stronger memories. -How easy they come to mind -Research has shown that consumers remember longer commercials better than shorter ones and bigger print ads better than smaller ones. -how prominent the stimulus is

brand image

Specific type of schema that captures what a brand stands for and how favorably it is viewed. -An image does not represent all the associations linked to a schema—only those that are most salient and that make the brand different from others in the category.

Many stores display baby bottles, diapers, and baby food in the same aisle despite these products' __________ differences. But these products are part of a ______________ _____________—"things you need to take care of a baby."

Taxonomic, goal-derived category

Prototypicality

The extent to which an object is representative of its category. Examples: -a diamond ring may be a more prototypical engagement gift than a tattoo or a nose piercing -the iPad may be the prototypical tablet computer Social media: Facebook Smartphone: iPhone Theme park: Disney

Knowledge structure

describes how we organize knowledge (both episodic and semantic) in memory.

priming

The increased sensitivity to certain concepts and associations due to prior experience based on implicit memory. -The spread of activation unconsciously Example: occurs when a concept is activated by a stimulus (such as when the "Milka" brand activates the concept "Switzerland")

Long-term memory (LTM)

The part of memory where information is permanently stored for later use. 2 types: episodic and semantic memory

Consumer memory

The persistence of learning over time, via the storage and retrieval of information, either consciously or unconsciously.

working memory (WM)

The portion of memory where incoming information is encoded or interpreted in the context of existing knowledge, and kept available for more processing. -where most of our conscious information processing takes place. -It is both limited in capacity and short-lived in time, some 20 to 30 seconds at most. -it requires attention to retain information.

graded structure

The principle that the fact that category members vary in how well they are perceived to represent a category -In the category of soft drinks, you might view Diet Coke as a better example of a soft drink than a lesser-known diet drink.

spreading of activation

The process by which retrieving a concept or association spreads to the retrieval of a related concept or association. -can explain why we have a random train of thought as the activation spreads from one associative network to another - can be conscious or unconscious (priming)

brand's personality

The set of associations included in a schema that reflect a brand's personification. -many brands could be described according to such dimensions as sincerity, competence, ruggedness -anthropomorphic image of a product: such as a car—seeing it as if it was alive, not an inanimate object— consumers are more committed to it and less willing to replace it. -using a brand with a certain personality can help shape a consumer's personality -key element is the fit between the consumer's actual personality and the brand's personality

When we think about an object—say, an apple—we might use ___________ processing and represent it with the word apple.

discursive processing

primacy and recency effects

The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first or last in a sequence. -Decay and inference can explain -Ex: consumers are likely to remember the first ad during a commercial break because there is no other ad information to interfere with it. -sampling two desirable products (such as two new songs), consumers tend to prefer the second sample, because of recency effects -many advertisers believe that the best placement for an ad is either first or last in a commercial sequence or in a paper or digital magazine.

Construal level theory

Theory describing the different levels of abstractness in the associations that a consumer has about concepts (people, products, brands, and activities) and how the consumer's psychological distance influences the abstractness of the associations (far= abstract, close= concrete) and his or her behavior. For instance, the price of a product may be an indicator of quality when the purchase is far in the future; yet price may also be an indicator of the "pain" of paying when a consumer is in the store, and ready to buy (or not).

elaboration

Transferring information into long-term memory by processing it at deeper levels.

____________ brands have a retrieval advantage when the name of the brand fits well with the product function, whereas __________ brands have a retrieval advantage when the name features unusual spelling.

Unfamiliar, familiar

brand extension

Using the brand name of a product with a well-developed image on a product in a different category. -like Dove soap -Ideally, the brand extension fits the brand's personality, the brand is liked, and the brand extension presents a benefit over products of competitors -images can effect it

Prototypicality

We are better able to recognize and recall prototypical or pioneer brands because these have been frequently rehearsed and recirculated and are linked to many other concepts in memory, and pioneers were the first to occupy the links.

Firms with a ____________________ need to act more aggressively to support their brands after a crisis.

Weaker brand image

Correlated attributes

When an associative network contains attributes that are linked in the consumer's mind Example: consumers may expect the size of a car to be negatively correlated with fuel efficiency, or the price to be positively correlated with quality or luxury -may be correlated or not

Explicit memory

When consumers are consciously aware that they remember something. Example: consumers may remember that they visited a particular website, and what they ordered from the site.

nonalignable attributes

attributes that are not shared by all brands in the category -When evaluating products, experts have the deeper knowledge and motivation to process knowledge of

taxonomic categories can be hierarchically organized into:

basic, subordinate, and superordinate levels.

To develop the brand images and personalities, a company may offer multiple ________________ (the way Dove did with antiperspirant), link the product to an appropriate sponsorship (the way GEICO did with the motorcycle rally), or highlight additional features and benefits.

brand extensions

superordinate level (taxonomic category)

broadest level of categorization -where objects share a few associations but also have many different ones.

goal-derived category

contains things that consumers view as similar because they serve the same goal, even though they may belong to very different taxonomic categories example: "Lighter, water, beef jerky, and a tent" have very different attributes but they may belong to the goal-directed category "things to take on a camping trip" -exhibit graded structure

For instance, you may have found that when someone asks you a question, and you are not really listening, you can say, "What did you say?" and actually "play back" what the person said.

echoic memory

When you drive by a sign and see it quickly and then only later realize what the sign was advertising.

iconic memory

Suppose you are driving down the highway at high speed and pass a billboard bearing the word Caterpillar (a brand of construction machinery). Later you are asked whether you remember seeing a billboard and, if so, what was on it. If you are asked to say the first word you can think of that begins with cat-, you might answer "caterpillar." Why? Because when you are asked for a word that begins with cat-, your __________________ brings the brand to mind.

implicit memory

Brand personality has an even stronger influence on the consumer's emotional attachment to a brand when _____________, ____________, _____________ are high.

involvement, self-esteem, and public self-consciousness

Echoic memory

is sensory memory of things we hear

iconic memory

is sensory memory of things we see

prototype

is the category member perceived to be the best example of the (cognitive, mental) category, like Disney being the prototypical theme park, and apple pie being the prototypical pie.

schemas

is the group of associations or associative network linked to an object or person -are a form of semantic knowledge -Example: the concept banana has various associations—it has 100 calories, is yellow, and bruises easily, and the peel can be slippery if stepped on. We have schemas for people (mothers, Taylor Swift, basketball players), salespeople (cosmetics salesperson, car salesperson), ads (Taco Bell ads, GEICO ads), companies (Apple, Huawei), places (LEGOLAND, the Taj Mahal)

procedural knowledge

knowledge about how to do things with the objects and people and are related to episodic memory

semantic memory

knowledge about what objects and people are, and what they mean to a consumer -stored in memory consists of facts and general knowledge unrelated to specific episodes in our life's history -a type of long-term memory -For example, we have memory for the concept called "cola." We know that colas are liquid, come in cans and bottles, are fizzy and brown in color, and are sweet.

When we say we "know" something, it has to do with what we have encountered (knowledge_______________) and the way in which that knowledge is organized in memory (knowledge ______________).

knowledge content, knowledge structure

The information we store and retrieve is learned from various sources:

marketing communications, the media, word-of-mouth, and personal experience

Rehearsal

means that we actively and consciously interact with the material that we are trying to remember, perhaps by silently repeating or actively thinking about the information and its meaning (BOATS, BOATS). -improves the transfer of information to long-term memory

Episodic (or autobiographical)

memory represents knowledge about ourselves and what has happened to us in our past, including emotions and sensations tied to past experiences (long-term) - tends to be very personal and idiosyncratic -These memories tend to be primarily sensory, involving visual images, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations. -can influence how products and services are evaluated -Example: product acquisition, such as a specific shopping trip to find a birthday present for a good friend -consumption such as eating at a particular restaurant.

Decay

occurs when memory strength deteriorates over time, for instance, because it has not been used. -is reduced by repetition of the information, such as by advertising, and by recirculation, such as when repeatedly retrieving it from memory.

Interference

occurs when the strength of a memory deteriorates over time because of the presence of other memories that compete with it. Example: Suppose you watch an ad that focuses on car brand A's safety, followed by a similar ad that focuses on car brand B's speed. You may then remember that some brand excels in safety but forget which brand it is. -Moreover, interference can result when one concept is activated so frequently that we cannot activate a different one. example: In trying to remember the missing items on a grocery list, you keep remembering the items you have already recalled, and these recollections interfere with your ability to activate the missing ones.

Recall

occurs when we remember we have seen, heard, smelled, touched, or tasted a stimulus before without being reexposed to the stimulus again Example: "Which car brands do you remember having owned before?" without providing a list.

Recognition

occurs when we remember we have seen, heard, smelled, touched, or tasted some stimulus before, after being reexposed to the stimulus again. Example: "Which of the following car brands have you owned before?" after which a list of car brands names and pictures is provided.

operant conditioning

one vivid event produces a lasting memory and a changed behavior -For example, if you once ate at a particular restaurant and found a hair in your food, the memory of this experience might prevent you from eating there again. -Also, you may remember how much you paid for something the last time you made that purchase, and this memory can affect your future choices.

Exposure to brands via advertising and other marketing stimuli enhances ______________

perceptual fluency

Knowledge content

reflects the information we have already learned and stored in memory about brands, companies, stores, people, how to shop, how to use public transportation or bake a cake, and so on.

Key characteristics of the stimulus that affect retrieval are:

salience, prototypicality, redundant cues, and the medium

Knowledge content takes the form of:

schemas or scripts