Chapter 7: Memory

recall

A psychologist who asks you to write down as many objects as you can remember having seen a few minutes earlier is testing your________.

level out

Ebbinghaus' "forgetting curve" shows that after an initial decline, memory for novel information tends to ________.

How do emotions affect our memory processing?

Emotions affect our memory processing through triggering stress hormones that increase brain activity, particularly in memory forming areas thanks to the amygdala. The stronger an emotion the stronger the memory, it's adaptive.

How do explicit and implicit memories differ?

Explicit and implicit memories differ in that they are processed by two different tracks of the mind. Our explicit memories are the product of processing information on our conscious track. Our implicit memories are the product of processing information on our unconscious track.

How do external events, internal moods, and order of appearance affect memory retrieval?

External events, internal moods, and order of appearance affect memory retrieval in the following ways: external events provide association anchors for our memories allowing us to better recall them; internal moods can affect the types of memories we are remembering; and order of appearance can affect what we remember, for instance immediately after reading a list we may remember the latter items because they are still in our working memory, but the next day we are more likely to remember the first items because we likely rehearsed them more.

repression

Freud proposed that painful or unaccepetable memories are blocked from consciousness through a mechanism called ________.

What is the three-stage information-processing model?

The three-stage information-processing model is the model that Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed to explain how we form memories. First, we record information to be remembered through sensory memory, next we encode the information into our short-term memory through rehearsal, then information is finally in our long-term memory for later retrieval.

What is the capacity of long-term memory?

There is no real limit on the capacity of long-term memory.

How do we decide whether a memory is real or false?

We decide whether a memory is real or false by looking at what triggered its recovery if anything, the language used to ask questions about the memory, whether or not source amnesia is playing a role affecting the context of the memory, and whether any misinformation was given or imagination took place.

Why do we forget?

We forget sometimes due to amnesia, but more commonly because of encoding failure, storage decay, or retention failure through interference or motivated forgetting.

source amnesia

We may recognize a face at a social gathering but be unable to remember how we know that person. This is an example of ________.

amnesia

loss of memory, often due to brain trauma, injury, or disease; literally "without memory"

mnemonics

memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

recognition

memory demonstrated by identifying items previously learned; multiple-choice test

recall

memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier; fill-in-the-blank

relearning

memory demonstrated by time saved when learning material a second time

explicit memory

memory of facts and personal events you can consciously retrieve; declarative memory

hippocampus

neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage; the "save button"

working memory

newer understanding of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

memory

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information; storehouse of accumulated learning

encoding

process of getting information into memory system

retrieval

process of getting information out of memory storage

storage

process of getting retaining encoded information over time

long-term memory

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

implicit memory

retaining learned skills or classically conditioned associations, without conscious awareness

spacing effect

tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

retoractive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with your current good or bad mood

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of everyday information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

misinformation effect

when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

What are some effortful processing strategies that can help us remember new information?

Some effortful processing strategies that can help us remember new information include: chunking, menemonics, spaced study, self-assessment, and making the information meaningful to yourself.

retrieval cues

Specific odors, visual images, emotions, or other associations that help us access a memory are examples of ________.

What is the capacity of our short-term memory and working memory?

The capacity of our short-term memory and working memory is about 7 numbers, 6 letters, or 5 words but varies depending on an individual's age as well as other factors, including, but not limited to the amount of distractions present.

What roles to the cerebellum and basal ganglia play in memory processing?

The cerebellum and basal ganglia play a role in processing implicit memories. The cerebellum records information learned from classical conditioning and its conditioned responses and the basal ganglia serve as our motor movement memory that helps us remember physical skills.

short-term memory; active processing

The concept of working memory clarifies the idea of ________ ________ by focusing on the ________ ________ that occurs in this stage.

What roles to the hippocampus and frontal lobes play in memory processing?

The hippocampus and frontal lobes play a role in processing explicit memories. The hippocampus registers and stores aspects of a scene and then sends it off to other areas for stores elsewhere though memory consolidation. Our frontal lobes, either right or left, become active depending on the nature of the information you are retrieving.

temporary; explicit

The hippocampus seems to function as a ________ processing site for _______ memories.

retroactive

The hour before sleep is a good time to memorize information, because going to sleep after learning new material minimizes _________ interference.

encoding; storage; retrieval

The psychological terms for taking in information, retaining it, and later getting it back out are ________, ________, and ________.

iconic; echoic

Sensory memory may be visual (________ memory) or auditory (________ memory).

long-term potentiation

increase in a synapse's firing potential; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory; increased neural efficiency

implicit

Amnesia following hippocampus damage typically leaves people unable to learn new facts or recall recent events. However, they may be able to learn new skills, such as riding a bicycle, which is an ________ memory.

How does sensory memory work?

Sensory memory works by creating fleeting memories either through echoic or iconic memory and is briefly available for recall without rehearsal.

How do changes at the synapse level affect our memory processing?

Changes at the synapse level affect our memory processing because as we learn, more of the neurotransmitter serotonin is released between neurons, thus the connection is strengthened between the synapses and the number of synapses can increase. The increased neural efficiency that results from learning and experience is called long-term potentiation where sending neurons release neurotransmitters with more ease and develop additional receptor sights.

neutral; nonleading; soon; words; understand

Children can be accurate eyewitnesses if a ________ person asks ________ questions _______ after the event, in _______ children can ________.

How reliable are young children's eyewitness descriptions?

Children's eyewitness descriptions are not very reliable unless a neutral person asked nonleading questions soon following an event, using language children can understand.

Why is cramming ineffective, and what is the testing effect?

Cramming is ineffective because when we learn quickly we forget quickly. Spaced retrieval of information results in better long-term recall and mass practice can result in overconfidence and short-term learning. The testing effect is the improved recall of information through self-assessment by practicing retrieval of information.

What information do we automatically process?

Information we automatically process includes space, time, and frequency.

How do information-processing models help us study memory?

Information-processing models help us study memory by comparing memory to computer operations to understand how we form and retrieve memories through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

How has later research updated the three-stage information-processing model?

Later research has updated the three-stage information-processing model to include newer concepts such as working memory because so much active processing takes place in the middle stage, and automatic processing because some information is able to bypass our conscious attention where it will be stored in long-term memory.

increase; stimulation

Long-term potentiation refers to an ________ in cell's firing potential following brief, rapid ________.

mnemonics

Memory aids that use visual imagery (such as peg words) or other organizational devices are called _______.

How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction?

Misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction in the following ways: the misinformation effect describes the influence that false information has on our reconstruction of that memory; imagining a fake event can create false memories; and source amnesia happens when we remember the information but not the context and can lead to accidental plagiarism or accusations

the misinformation effect

One reason false memories from is our tendency to fill in memory gaps with our reasonable guesses and assumptions, sometimes based on misleading information. This tendency is an example of ________.

Are our long-term memories processed and stored in specific locations?

Our long-term memories are not processed and stored in specific locations, rather many parts of the brain interact to encode, store, and retrieve information.

7

Our short-term memory for new information is limited to about _____ items.

How do psychologists assess memory with recall, recognition, and relearning?

Psychologists assess memory with recall, recognition, and relearning to find that recognition and the time spent relearning that we remember more than we can recall and that recall demonstrates stronger memory of the information.

repress; memories

Psychologists involved in the study of memories of abuse tend to DISAGREE that we tend to _________ extremely upsetting ________.

Why are reports of repressed and recovered memories so hotly debated?

Reports of repressed and recovered memories are so hotly debated because often these memories are false, but regardless feel very real. Memories that are recovered through hypnosis are not reliable, in fact, memories that are recovered naturally are more likely to be true.

deja-vu

When a situation triggers the feeling that "I've been here before," you are experiencing ________ ________.

short-term memory; long-term memory

When forgetting is due to encoding failure, meaningless information has not been transferred from ________ into ________.

first

When tested immediately after viewing a list of words, people tend to recall the first and last items more readily than those in the middle. When retested after a delay, they are most likely to recall the ________ items on the list.

How can you use memory research findings to do better in this course and in others?

You can use memory research findings to do better in this course and in others by rehearsing repeatedly, activating retrieval cues, sleeping more, using mnemonic devices, minimizing interference, self-assessment, and making the material meaningful to you.

memory trace

lasting physical changes in the brain as a memory forms

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

priming

activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

retrieval cue

any stimulus linked to a specific memory; surroundings, events, feelings, etc.

flashbulb memory

clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event; "capture this!"

déjà-vu

cues from current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

proactive interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; retrieval practice effect

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

sensory memory

immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness the thoughts, feelings, and memories that arouse anxiety