chapter 9

theory x

280Managers who subscribe to the Theory X view maintain tight control over workers, provide almost constant supervision, try to motivate through fear, and make decisions in an autocratic fashion, eliciting little or no input from their subordinates. The Theory X style of management focuses on physiological and security needs and virtually ignores the higher needs discussed by Maslow.

The Hawthorne Studies

Elton Mayo and a team of researchers from Harvard University wanted to determine what physical conditions in the workplace—such as light and noise levels—would stimulate employees to be most productive. What the researchers discovered was quite unexpected and very puzzling: Productivity increased regardless of the physical conditions. This phenomenon has been labeled the Hawthorne effect.

flexible schedule pt.3

Other firms are allowing employees to telecommute or telework (work at home a few days of the week), staying connected via computers and telephones. Most telecommuters tend to combine going into the office with working from home.

Maslow's hierarchy

Psychologist Abraham Maslow theorized that people have five basic needs: physiological, security, social, esteem, and self-actualization

Classical Theory of Motivation

The birth of the study of human relations can be traced to time and motion studies conducted at the turn of the century by Frederick W. Taylor and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Their studies analyzed how workers perform specific work tasks in an effort to improve the employees' productivity. These efforts led to the application of scientific principles to management. money is the sole motivator for workers.

flexible scheduling pt.2

Two other flexible scheduling strategies attaining wider use include allowing full-time workers to work part-time for a certain period and allowing workers to work at home either full- or part-time. Employees at some firms may be permitted to work part-time for several months in order to care for a new baby or an elderly parent or just to slow down for a little while to "recharge their batteries."

compressed workweek

a four-day (or shorter) period in which an employee works 40 hours. Under such a plan, employees typically work 10 hours per day for four days and have a three-day weekend. The compressed workweek reduces the company's operating expenses because its actual hours of operation are reduced

Theory Z

a management philosophy that stresses employee participation in all aspects of company decision making.Theory Z incorporates many elements associated with the Japanese approach to management, such as trust and intimacy, but Japanese ideas have been adapted for use in the United States. Theory Z results in employees feeling organizational ownership

flextime

a program that allows employees to choose their starting and ending times, as long as they are at work during a specified core period

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

a theory of motivation that focuses on the job and on the environment where work is done. Herzberg studied various factors relating to the job and their relation to employee motivation and concluded that they can be divided into hygiene factors and motivational factors

Job enlargement

adds more tasks to a job instead of treating each task as separate. Like job rotation, job enlargement was developed to overcome the boredom associated with specialization. The rationale behind this strategy is that jobs are more satisfying as the number of tasks performed by an individual increases. Employees sometimes enlarge, or craft, their jobs by noticing what needs to be done and then changing tasks and relationship boundaries to adjust.

Job rotation

allows employees to move from one job to another in an effort to relieve the boredom that is often associated with job specialization. Businesses often turn to specialization in hopes of increasing productivity, but there is a negative side effect to this type of job design: Employees become bored and dissatisfied, and productivity declines. Job rotation reduces this boredom by allowing workers to undertake a greater variety of tasks and by giving them the opportunity to learn new skills.

Motivation

an inner drive that directs a person's behavior toward goals. A goal is the satisfaction of some need, and a need is the difference between an actual state and a desired state. Both needs and goals can be motivating. Motivation explains why people behave as they do; similarly, a lack of motivation explains, at times, why people avoid doing what they should do.

Extrinsic rewards

are benefits and/or recognition that you receive from someone else. In this class, your grade is extrinsic recognition of your efforts and success in the class. In business, praise and recognition, pay increases, and bonuses are extrinsic rewards

team incentives

are used to generate partnership and collaboration to accomplish organizational goals. Boeing develops sales teams for most of its products, including commercial airplanes. The team dedicated to each product shares in the sales incentive program

morale

employee's attitude toward his or her job, employer, and colleagues. High morale contributes to high levels of productivity, high returns to stakeholders, and employee loyalty. Conversely, low morale may cause high rates of absenteeism and turnover (when employees quit or are fired and must be replaced by new employees).

job rotation pt.2

employees may eventually become bored with all the jobs in the cycle, job rotation does not totally eliminate the problem of boredom. Job rotation is extremely useful, however, in situations where a person is being trained for a position that requires an understanding of various units in an organization.

true or false: Millennials and Generation Z are groups of employees who don't value flexibility in their work schedules.

false

equity theory

how much people are willing to contribute to an organization depends on their assessment of the fairness, or equity, of the rewards they will receive in exchange.

Job enrichment

incorporates motivational factors such as opportunity for achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement into a job. It gives workers not only more tasks within the job, but more control and authority over the job. Job enrichment programs enhance a worker's feeling of responsibility and provide opportunities for growth and advancement when the worker is able to take on the more challenging tasks

Behavior modification

involves changing behavior and encouraging appropriate actions by relating the consequences of behavior to the behavior itself.

management by objectives

refers to the need to develop goals that both managers and employees can understand and agree upon.25 This requires managers to work with employees to set personal objectives that will be used to further organizational objectives

Security needs

relate to protecting yourself from physical and economic harm. Actions that may be taken to achieve security include reporting a dangerous workplace condition to management, maintaining safety equipment, and purchasing insurance with income protection in the event you become unable to work.

Esteem needs

relate to respect—both self-respect and respect from others. One aspect of esteem needs is competition—the need to feel that you can do something better than anyone else. Competition often motivates people to increase their productivity. Esteem needs are not as easily satisfied as the needs at lower levels in Maslow's hierarchy because they do not always provide tangible evidence of success. However, these needs can be realized through rewards and increased involvement in organizational activities.

Goal-setting theory

the impact that setting goals has on performance. According to this philosophy, goals act as motivators to focus employee efforts on achieving certain performance outcomes. Setting goals can positively affect performance because goals help employees direct their efforts and attention toward the outcome, mobilize their efforts, develop consistent behavior patterns, and create strategies to obtain desired outcomes

Job Design

the job itself as a motivational factor. Managers have several strategies that they can use to design jobs to help improve employee motivation. These include job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, and flexible scheduling strategies.

Physiological needs

the most basic and first needs to be satisfied, are the essentials for living—water, food, shelter, and clothing. humans devote all their efforts to satisfying physiological needs until they are met

Social needs

the need for love, companionship, and friendship—the desire for acceptance by others. To fulfill social needs, a person may try many things: making friends with a co-worker, joining a group, volunteering at a hospital, throwing a party, and so on.

intrinsic reward

the personal satisfaction and enjoyment that you feel from attaining a goal. For example, in this class you may feel personal enjoyment in learning how business works and aspire to have a career in business or to operate your own business one day.

human relations

the study of the behavior of individuals and groups in organizational settings. involves motivating employees to achieve organizational objectives efficiently and effectively

reinforcement theory

the theory that behavior can be strengthened or weakened through the use of rewards and punishments.

Self-actualization needs

the top of Maslow's hierarchy, mean being the best you can be. Self-actualization involves maximizing your potential. Self-actualized people tend to feel that they are living life to its fullest in every way.

True or False: the two strategies may not be equally effective. Punishing unacceptable behavior may provide quick results but may lead to undesirable long-term side effects, such as employee dissatisfaction and increased turnover

true

true or false: Engagement involves emotional involvement and commitment. Being engaged results in carrying out the expectations and obligations of employment. Many employees are actively engaged in their jobs, while others are not

true

true or false:Respect, involvement, appreciation, adequate compensation, promotions, a pleasant work environment, and a positive organizational culture are all morale boosters.

true

piece-rate system

under which employees were paid a certain amount for each unit they produced; those who exceeded their quota were paid a higher rate per unit for all the units they produced.

Job sharing

when two people do one job. One person may work from 8:00 a.m. to 12:30 p.m.; the second person comes in at 12:30 p.m. and works until 5:00 p.m. Job sharing gives both people the opportunity to work as well as time to fulfill other obligations, such as parenting or school. With job sharing, the company has the benefit of the skills of two people for one job, often at a lower total cost for salaries and benefits than one person working eight hours a day would be paid.

Motivational factors

which relate to the content of the work itself, include achievement, recognition, involvement, responsibility, and advancement. The absence of motivational factors may not result in dissatisfaction, but their presence is likely to motivate employees to excel.

Hygiene factors

which relate to the work setting and not to the content of the work, include adequate wages, comfortable and safe working conditions, fair company policies, and job security. These factors do not necessarily motivate employees to excel, but their absence may be a potential source of dissatisfaction and high turnover. Employee safety and comfort are clearly hygiene factors.

expectancy theory

which states that motivation depends not only on how much a person wants something, but also on the person's perception of how likely he or she is to get it. A person who wants something and has reason to be optimistic will be strongly motivated

McGregor's Theory X

workers generally dislike work and must be forced to do their jobs. They believe that the following statements are true of workers: The average person naturally dislikes work and will avoid it when possible. Most workers must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to work toward the achievement of organizational objectives. The average worker prefers to be directed and to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security.

theroy y

workers like to work and that under proper conditions employees will seek out responsibility in an attempt to satisfy their social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. People will exercise self-direction and self-control to achieve objectives to which they are committed. People will commit to objectives when they realize that the achievement of those goals will bring them personal reward. The average person will accept and seek responsibility. Imagination, ingenuity, and creativity can help solve organizational problems, but most organizations do not make adequate use of these characteristics in their employees. Organizations today do not make full use of workers' intellectual potential