Chapter 9:Assumption Questions
Parallel Principle
combine actions used in identify and apply. Identify underlying principle in the specific situation in the stimulus. then apply that general principle to a new specific situation located in one of the answer choices. ^V specific to general to specific
Sufficient Assumption Q terms:
"If assumed" "conclusion follows logically" "allows the conclusion to be drawn" Won't use language like "needs," "requires," or "depends."
Flaw Q terms
"point out a flaw", "Identify the error in reasoning" or "vulnerable to criticism"
Recognizing Principle Question Stems
"principle" "proposition or policy" "most closely conforms to" and "best illustrates"
Weaken terms
"weakens" "calls into question" "undermines"
Less Common Flaw types
-MM-equivocation Occurs when the same word or phrase is used twice but with two different meanings. *This often appears in wrong answer choices -MM-Parts to whole very similar to rep, looks individual pieces and uses it to make conclusion about pieces together. -Circular reasoning uses equivalent statements for conclusion and evidence. This is a common wrong answer choice -Evidence Contradicts conclusion Although evidence never fully prove conclusion on A Q's this evidence actually contradicts the conclusion. This is a common wrong answer choice.
Terms "assumed" and "assumption" ask for two distinct things.
Assumed-correct answer will be an assumption that when added to evidence, will guarantee the conclusion. can be refered to as suf assumption Assumption-correct answer doesn't need to guarantee the conclusion instead it will be an assumption that is NECESSARY for the conclusion to make logical sense.
Why is phrasing OP argument in NA questions important?
Because once you identify it as a OP, you can now look at answer choices and ask yourself okay what is a potential objection to this argument.
E Question approach
Conclusion__ Why? because____ Assumption and pattern Answer choice not straightforward typically phrased as a question where the answer has either positive or negative impact on argument. E Except find answer choice that has no impact
Weaken approach (often OP)
Conclusion___why? because____ Identify argument type (MM or OP) Identify assumption identify one of the possible objections in the answer choices what is a alternative explanation
Flaw Q approach
Conclusion___why? because____ Identify what specific type of error is made what is the type of argument then what is the specific type of error. Predict answer based on the identification of the error Look for an answer choice that either describes the error in abstract terms or in direct terms.
Strengthen OP (more common) approach
Conclusion__why? because___ Note argument pattern and assumption The answer choice will eliminate alternative explanation or provide further support.
Strengthen MM Approach
Conclusion__why? because___ Note argument pattern and assumption The answer will affirm the relationship the author assumes exists between mismatched terms. May just strengthen in general for both MM and OP
Eight assumptions questions that ask you to determine an arguments assumption. Look for words presupposes, assumption, and assumes in q stem.
Correct answers will always present a new piece of information that the author has not included in his argument. If answer restates evidence that has already been explicitly stated in the arguent then it will never be correct in the assumption question.
Flaw Questions
Describe the flaw, determine the error in the author's reasoning. LO: Identify flaw Q Recognize and characterize the most common flawed argument patterns Recognize an abstractly worded but correct answer choice in flaw question
Flaw Q types easy and difficult part
Easy part is determing the pattern of an argument Difficult part is correctly answering the flaw q. This occurs because the lsat words the correct answers differently than it does the correct answer to say SA and NA. How? Say you are looking at a OP flaw argument that makes error by saying the correlation between two is the cause. The correct answer to a necessary assumption would be to rule out any A,R, or C, where the correct answer to a flaw q is the decription of the overlooked possibility. It tell us it doesn't rule out, it it more abstract
Identify assumption Q's Recognize sufficient assumption questions Recognize necessary assumption questions Phrase a prediction of the correct answer choice
Heart of assumption Q's is learning to say the same few things in a variety of different ways.
Strengthen Questions
Identify a piece of information that if true would strengthen the argument. Strengthen does not mean "prove" the argument or "confirm" the conclusion thats too strong. Instead, it asks you to identify an answer choice that makes the conclusion more likely to be true.
S and W
If frustrated and can't get through return to conclusion and try to find an answer choice that most strenghten or weakens that conclusion
Weaken LO: Identify weaken questions Turn an assumption into a accurate prediction foe the correct answer Recognize answer choices that weaken the author's assumption.
If true would weaken the author's argument. DOES NOT mean that you have to disprove the conclusion. All you need to do is find the answer choice that contains a fact that makes the author's conclusion less likely to be true based on evidence
Principle
Law like general rule that can be applied no only to the particular situation in an argument but also to other comparable situations.
NA-mismatched
Look for an assumption that establishes some sort of relationship between the mismatched concepts with no outside info.
Why is it important to understand MM and OP before we get into the questions? Because the arguments you look at in assumptions questions will only be in these two forms. The test makers set the stimulus up this way so you have the ability to derive an assumption. Each assumption Q type will require a different assumption but know that MM needs you to connect the two mismatched concepts logically. For OP to be logically sound the assumptions need to eliminate any other possible explanation or this will destroy the conclusion. The author for OP arguments is assuming there is no other possibility.
MM- So what assumption can logical connect these two? The author is assuming logically that these two unrelated concepts are related. So it is your job to shows the assumption that logically connects them as relevant. OP- Overlook possibilities so what assumptions need to be eliminated in order for there to be only one possibility
Key identifications of MM and OP
MM- evidence does not help figure out conclusion. Yo, there is no evidence to get to this jump of concept? Ya well, I can fix that there is a logical relationship through these two concepts. A/E/R/N OP-does use evidence to help figure out conclusion Yo, that is a big leap there is evidence but geez idk about to that degree. Ya well, I can fix that there is no other possible explanation because the argument depends on____
Remember the LSAT provide incomplete arguments. You job is to figure out assumption. First way is to identify what type of argument it is MM or OP. After that you now see whether the assumption needs to connect two unrelated concepts, or it needs to rule out all potential objections.
MM-evidence does not necessarily relate to conclusion OP-evidence is relative but draws a extreme conclusion
SA-Mismatched with formal logic
Most common test Goal will be then to find mismatched terms connect them strongly and eliminate any answer choices that bring in outside information. OP very rare but if it happens find answer choice that rules out all objections to a conclusion.
Mismatched- SA vs NA
NA- necessity. The evidence and conclusion is represented explicitly in assumption. Can be the matter of one word. It is required this why you can use denial test on it and not SA. SA- guarantees. The evidence and conclusion can follow each other in less explicit terms. It doesn't have to be necessary assumption to hold the conclusion in a sense.
Other extremely rare flaw arguments-
Numerical values to percent age values evidence of belief to draw a conclusion or fact Ad Hominem Stating absence of evidence is evidence of absence Appeal to authority Failing to address speakers point
Summary of main types of FLAWs
OP 1.(General) Overlooking alternative explanations 2.Failure to consider that the Correlation does not mean the causation of one. Overlooking the alternative explanation to CvsC Overlooking the reverse explanation to CvC Overlooking the coincidence explanation to CvC 3.Overlooking that the results is confused with trigger 4.Overlooking the potential disadvantages or advantages MM 1.(General) Error where conclusion is unrelated to evidence 2.Error in thinking two different things are the same (scope shift & MM alike/equiv) 3.Error in thinking could occur means will occur 4.Error in unrepresentative sample 5.Error in which the same word is used but with two different meanings. 1.Error where conclusion is used as evidence 2.Error where evidence contradicts the conclusion Other: ad, # vs %, opinion vs fact, app a, not addressing point, absence of evidence is evidence for absence
Common Flaw types
Overlooked Possibilities-Failure to consider alternative explanations Overlooked Possibilities- A conclusion of causation that is based on evidence of correlation. ARC Overlooked Possibilities-Confusing the necessary and sufficient terms Mismatched Concepts(including alike/equivalent, mutually exclusive, and representation)
Apply the principle
Present a general principle in stimulus often as formal logic then ask you identify more specific situation in the correct answer choice. v general to specific
Necessary Assumptions Q terms:
Recognize these questions by terms "depends" "requires" or is "necessary", "an assumption required by the argument" or "the argument depends on the assumption that"
The answer choice all depends on if we are evaluating a suf or nec assumption, so one argument could find a answer in suf and nec assumptions and others will only be sufficient and not necessary or vice versa
Recognizing the distinction can help elimnate and evaluate answer choices
SA-Mismatched approach:
Start by untangling argument with formal logic. Draw the evidence, then the conclusion Identify which side mismatched terms are on. Generate assumption according to identification.
NA- Mismatched Approach
Start by untangling the argument. The conclusion is____ Why? Because______. Identify the disconnection between the concepts. Identify relationship- A/E/Rep/Nec
NA vs SA overlooked possibilites
Suf assumptions will want you to rule out all possible explanations to guarantee but nec only needs to rule out one possible rejection.
N A correct answer
The correct answer doesn't have to be sufficient for the conclusion to be drawn just necessary. Wrong will connect in an illogical way, discuss factors that are irrelevant to arg, or state facts that are stronger or more extreme than what the author is assuming.
Evaluation Questions
The correct answer will provide a piece of info that if true would make stronger or weaker if false would have the opposite effect. That is it would be irrelevant to arguments validity
The common lsat argument where the author fail to provide evidence sufficient enough for the conclusion has different formate of answers through different question types. We have looked at the two types of arguments and how they need to be logically connected in regards to a sufficient and necessary assumption, but now we will look at other question that can be asked about stimulus. What is the flaw, what can strenghthen or weaken, and what is the principle of this argument
These questions stems will have same approach as other assumption q's but the difference is that you will use the knowledge of the different
Assumption family principle questions
Three main varieties: Identify the Principle, Apply the Principle, and Parallel Principle
NA-Overlooked possibilities approach
Untangle argument The conclusion is____ Why? Because______. What is being regarded as the only explanation, reason, or outcome? Identify pattern Predict and seek an answer choice that will actually remove a possible objection. So it says this didn't happen. Not this did happen so select it because it is a possibility. No you select it because it is a sentence that rules out a possibility. It is what the author is not considering. **By doing this you are declaring that this assumption is depended upon because if not then it would present another possibility making the argument invalid. Remember the goal is to make it logical because it is incomplete.** It can be an answer choice that knowcks out one possible objection or it can be the only reason that is stated in conclusion.
Flaw Q OP approach
Untangle argument The conclusion is____ Why? Because______. What is being regarded as the only explanation, reason, or outcome? Identify pattern- CC/AE/N&S? Predict and seek an answer choice that will describe a possible overlooked possibility or the error of pattern.
Flaw Question approach
Untangle argument into evidence and conclusion Identify assumption Anticipate specific types (predict)
Weaken vs Flaw
Weaken wants you to identify a NEW piece of evidence that undermines the author's assumption where flaw wants you to describe the error.
Weaken answer choices
accept them as true and evaluate them saying "Okay, if this piece of evidence is true, would the conclusion be less likely to follow from his evidence?
Sufficient assumptions correct answer:
correct answer choice will be the one that when added to the evidence it guarantees the conclusion. This means the assumption can be broader than argument.
Denial test
deny or negate answer choice and if it destroys the conclusion then it is the correct answer. Use this if you can't make a strong prediction or struggle to recognize the right answer between two. You need to be able to identify conclusion correctly and understand it to be able to use this test. When doing this don't have prediction about assumption put prediction of what would destroy the conclusion. Be aware of what weakens and what destroys
Na-Overlooked possibilities
look for an assumption that removes at least one possible objection to the conclusion that the author has not considered. Seek an answer choice that removes at least one possible objection to the author's conclusion.By doing this you eliminate any potential objections making the argument a bit more logical
Identify the principle
specific argument or set of events, then ask you to identify applicable generalized principle in the answer choices. specific in stim to general ^
Op NA
the answers can and do routinely mention new but relevant info and should not be considered outside the scope because rather than bringing in new concept that asnwer identifies it as what the author is not considering. Make broad prediction
Weaken Except
will either strengthen or have no impact. Thing to be sure of is that four wrong answer weaken argumentCharacterizing wrong answers most important thing
Strengthen Except
will either weaken or have no impact. Thing to be sure of is that four wrong answers strengthen the argument. Characterizing wrong answers most important thing.