Classical and Operant Conditioning

Acquisition

Classical Conditioning: Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS Operant Conditioning: Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher)

Extinction

Classical Conditioning: CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone Operant Conditioning: Responding decreases when reinforcement stops

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior (ex. pigeon being given food when getting closer and closer to button)

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. (p. 257)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to (US) (such as food in the mouth)

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior being modeled is prosocial (positive, constructive and helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

Sam begins smoking with his girlfriend Sarah. He associates smoking with the positive emotions he has with her. How is Sam classically conditioned? (CS, UCS, UCR, CR) How is he operantly conditioned?

Classical Conditioning: - CS: smell of cigarette smoke - UCS: Sam - UCR: happiness - CR: happiness Operant Conditioning: - beginning to smoke (positive reinforcer: getting to spend more time with Sarah)

How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

A reinforcement schedule defines how often a response will be reinforced. In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. In partial (intermittent) reinforcement (reinforcing responses only sometimes), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set of number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.

Positive Punishment

Administer an aversive stimulus i.e. Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding.

Discrimination

Classical Conditioning: The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US Operant Conditioning: Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced

Spontaneous recovery

Classical Conditioning: The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR Operant Conditioning: The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response

Generalization

Classical Conditioning: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS Operant Conditioning: Organism's response to similar stimuli is also reinforced

How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning principles, we now know, are constrained by biological predispositions, so that learning some associations is easier than learning others. Learning is adaptive. Each species learns behaviors that aid its survival. Biological constraints also place limits on operant conditioning. Training that attempts to override biological constraints will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns.

Ethan constantly misbehaves at preschool even though his teacher scolds him repeatedly. Why does Ethan's misbehavior continue, and what can his teacher do to stop it?

If Ethan is seeking attention, the teacher's scolding may be reinforcing rather than punishing. To change Ethan's behavior, his teacher could offer reinforcement (such as praise) each time he behaves well. The teacher might encourage Ethan toward increasingly appropriate behavior through shaping, or by rephrasing rules as rewards instead of punishments. ("You can have a snack if you play nicely with the other children" [reward] rather than "You will not get a snack if you misbehave!" [punishment].)

What are some basic forms of learning?

In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two or more stimuli (a stimulus is any event or situation that evokes a response). We associate stimuli that we do not control, and we respond automatically. This is called respondent behavior. In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences. These associations produce operant behaviors. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information that guides our behavior. For example, in observational learning, we learn new behaviors by observing events and watching others.

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research demonstrate the importance of cognitive processes in learning. Other research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation.

How does observational learning differ from associative learning?

In observational learning, as we observe and imitate others we learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. In associative learning, we merely learn associations between different events.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

In operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing consequences). In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli - events it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior (automatic responds to some stimulus).

What is operant conditioning?

In operant conditioning, behaviors followed by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishers often decrease.

What was behaviorism's view of learning?

Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. The behaviorists believed that the basic laws of learning are the same for all species, including humans.

Who was Pavlov?

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, created novel experiments on learning. His early 20th century research over the last 3 decades of his life demonstrated that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning.

How is operant conditioning at work in the cartoon with the baby in the parents bed?

The baby negatively reinforces her parents' behavior when she stops crying once they grant her wish. Her parents positively reinforce her cries by letting her sleep with them.

How may observational learning be enabled by mirror neurons?

Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another's brain. Some psychologists believe mirror neurons enable this process. The same areas fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words) as we observe someone else performing those actions.

Why does Pavlov's work remain so important?

Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.

People who send spam are reinforced by which schedule? Home bakers checking the oven to see if the cookies are done are on which schedule? Airline frequent-flyer programs that offer a free flight after a certain number of miles of travel are using which reinforcement schedule?

Spammers are reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule (after a varying number of messages). Cookie checkers are reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule. Frequent-flyer programs use a fixed-ratio schedule.

Law of Effect

Thorndyke's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Negative Punishment

Withdraw a rewarding stimulus i.e. Take away a misbehaving teen's driving privileges; revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that elicits NO response BEFORE conditioning

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events (AUTOMATIC RESPONSE)

Respondent Behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant Behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

With _____________ conditioning, we learn associations between events we do not control. With ______________ conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events.

classical; operant

Operant Chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key packing

Whereas classical conditioning involves the conditioning of _____ behavior, operant conditioning involves the conditioning of _____ behavior.

involuntary; voluntary

Observational Learning

learning by observing others

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

reinforcing the desires response every time it occurs

Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) _____________ behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) ____________ behavior.

respondent; operant

Cognitive Learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal an US

Learning

the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes (most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2))

Higher-Order Conditioning

"second-order conditioning" - a procedure in which the CS in one conditioning experiment is paired with a new NS, creating a second (often weaker) CS - (ex). an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone

Conditioned Reinforcer

"secondary reinforcer"; a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer - need indefinitely (never get sick of having gold stars) - never hit limit - can reinforce a behavior LONGER than primary reinforcers (ex. stickers to a child)

Acquisition

(classical conditioning): LEARNING THE ASSOCIATION; the initial stage, when on links NS to US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. (operant conditioning): the strengthening of a reinforced response

Operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher (LEARNED BEHAVIOR) In operant conditioning, behaviors followed by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishers often decrease.

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of the association after extinction

Extinction

- GETTING RID OF THE LEARNED ASSOCIATION - the diminishing of a CR - occurs in classical conditioning when an US does not follow a CS - occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Cognitive Map

- a mental representation of the layout of one's environment - ex. after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Reinforcement Schedule

- a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced (how often you get a reward for behavior) - rewarding someone every time does not make the behavior last the longest - need to reinforce every time for the person to learn the behavior, and then person does better only if you reward behavior occasionally

What are some antisocial effects of observational learning?

- abusive parents may have aggressive children - watching TV and videos may teach children: bullying is effective tool for controlling others, free and easy sex has little later consequences, men should be tough/women should be gentle - violence-viewing effect

What are the prosocial effects of observational learning?

- behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees - modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others - across 7 countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior - socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers

Mirror Neurons

- frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so - the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy (ex. Bobo doll experiment)

Associative Learning

- learning that certain events occur together - the events may be 2 stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Who was Skinner, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

B.F. Skinner was a college English major and aspiring writer who later entered psychology graduate school. He became modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure. Expanding on Edward Thorndyke's Law of Effect, Skinner and others found that the behavior of rats or pigeons in an operant chamber (Skinner box) can be shaped by using reinforcers to guide closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Skinner: we don't learn everything equally - animals don't respond well to delayed punishment/reinforcement, so if there's a gap, won't associate things - taste aversions - if taste something and makes them feel nauseous, will associate two things - certain things for certain species that get reinforced/punished more easily B. F. Skinner was a college English major and aspiring writer who later entered psychology graduate school. He became modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure. Expanding on Edward Thorndike's law of effect, Skinner and others found that the behavior of rats or pigeons placed in an operant chamber (Skinner box) can be shaped by using reinforcers to guide closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Response

Classical Conditioning: Involuntary, automatic Operant Conditioning: Voluntary, operates on environment

Basic Idea

Classical Conditioning: Organism associates events Operant Conditioning: Organism associates behavior and resulting events

What have been some applications of Pavlov's work to human health and well-being? How did Watson apply Pavlov's principles to learned fears?

Classical conditioning techniques are used to improve human health and well-being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders. The body's immune system may also respond to classical conditioning. Pavlov's work also provided a basis for Watson's idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of "Little Albert" to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned.

Why did Skinner's ideas provoke controversy, and how might his operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, and at home?

Critics of Skinner's principles believed the approach dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that people's actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforcement is more humane than punishment as a means for controlling behavior. At school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and they can use interactive software and websites to provide immediate feedback. In sports, coaches can build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. At work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. At home, parents can reward desired behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual. - At school: Computer and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning - In sports: Behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance - At work: Rewards successfully used to increase productivity - At home: Basic rules of shaping used in parenting

In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

In classical conditioning, acquisition is associating the NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Through higher-order conditioning, a new NS can become a new CS. Extinction is diminished responding when the CS no longer signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdraws something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy) in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child's disobedience). Negative reinforcement (taking an aspirin) removes an adverse stimulus (a headache). This desired consequence (freedom from pain) increases the likelihood that the behavior (taking aspirin to end pain) will be repeated. Punishment can have undesirable side effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors; teaching aggression; creating fear; encouraging discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present); and fostering depression and feelings of helplessness.

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens behavior. Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry or having nausea end during an illness) are innately satisfying - no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards (such as food or medicine we buy with them). Immediate reinforcers (such as a purchased treat) offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers (such as a weekly paycheck) require the ability to delay gratification.

Intrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Conditioned Response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response (UR)

Punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Primary Reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as on that satisfies a biological need (food, sleep, water, sex, anything that automatically supposed to like)

Variable-Ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an variable number of responses - ex. gambling (get reward only a certain number of times for all the times you pull down lever - not always guaranteed) - makes it last the LONGEST - THE BEST WAY TO REINFORCE A BEHAVIOR

Variable-Interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals - have an average interval after which it can be reinforced, but not constant - causes more steady responding because do not know exact interval - ex. checking grades, email, text messages (check more consistently because do not know when it will happen)

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses (creates slow and steady responding) - based on number of things you actually do - interval means time

Fixed-Interval Schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed (you respond right after the time it's supposed to happen) - ex. getting mail

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. (p. 257)

Positive Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers (any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response)

Negative Reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli - a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response)

Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior (opposite of antisocial behavior)