Cog. Dev. Exam 2

Decasper et. al. 1994

Method: Pregnant women repeated a rhyme 3 times a day for 4 weeks Rhyme read at 37 weeks Results: Fetal heart rate decreased with familiar rhyme

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

core knowledge

infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems

Orienting Response

an inborn tendency to notice and respond to novel or surprising events can include physiological responses (Pavlov) "what is it?" reflex

Intersensory integration

coordinating information from one of the senses with information from another one of the senses

Sensation

events that take place when information from the environment excites sensory receptors in the body and brain

Do Infants have Episodic Memory?

-look at deferred imitation

Searching and Piaget

- Stage 1 and 2 (no active search) - Stage 3 (extends previous actions, searches for half hidden, hiding in dark -Stage 4 (search for hidden objects, but A-not-B error) -Stage 5 (no longer A-not-B error, but cannot do invisible displacement (where hiding takes place out of sight)

Rose, Gottfried, and Bridger 1978

- 6 and 12mth old infants -30sec familiarization, orally (cube or sphere) or manually -visual test -only 12mth olds looked more at the novel object

Methods for Studying Sensory Responsiveness

- Kiselevsky et. al. (2003) fetal heart rate measure after hearing mothers voice vs. stranger -- fetal H.R increases hearing mom -de Regnier et al. (2000) average ERP response for 28 neonates in response to mothers voice vs stranger -- signal response greatest in frontal regions

The Object Concept

- Piaget (search is an index of the dev of the object concept/ the objects cont. to exits across transformations, including when out of sight) -A-not-B as Stage IV Error (failing to appreciate that the object exist independently of the child's action on the object)

Ainsfeld Imitation Replication

-12/23 cases tongue protrusion higher than in control; when no effect, the duration of modeling was 40sec or less -tongue protrusion increases after the reflex is being 'dammed up"; the reflex needs to get out

Fivush and Hamond 1990

-3 and 4 y/o children went to Disney World and were interviewed about trip 6 or 18mths later -older children recalled more spontaneous info/ better memory for personally-relevant info vs. lab materials

Renee Baillargeon

-30 years of infant research, challenging Piaget's theory on the Object Concept -led several researchers to study infant understanding of physical events using violation of expectation paradigm (Occlusion, Containment, Covering) -significant changes over first year, starting at 2.5 months

Attention and Memory Paradigms: Conditioned Head-Turn and Violation of Expectation/ Surprise

-Conditioned Head-Turn (teach the infant to turn head when the stimulus changes to produce an interesting visual display; incorrect head turns not rewarded) -Violation of Expectation/Surprise (sequentially present a possible and an impossible event; note whether the infant looks longer at the impossible event)

Assessing Visual Acuity

-Fance (1958): visual frequency test/ infants prefer to look at stripes; compare stripes to gray -vision poor at birth (1/30th of adult level/ 20/600 ; approaches adult level during first year)

Visual Preference Paradigm

-Fantz 1958 -looking to see infant looking preference btw two stimuli

Lean Imitation

-Global Arousal Response (tongue protrusion part of a global arousal response elicited by visual stimulation) -Innate Releasing Mechanism (could be that the experimenters tongue is seen as suckable; Jackson and Kagan (1979) elicited TP with pens as well as with tongue, and more with the pen than with ring dangled near the infants hand -Very quickly learned (reinforcing effect of attention/ mother's TP is discrimination stimulus)

Brain Function and Memory

-NIRS changes in blood flow in specific areas of the brain -frontal lobe activation main indicator of object permanence

Do Infants Think?

-Piaget says "no", until the end of the sensorimotor period -stages 3-6

Implicit Memory Representations in the Fetus

-The Cat and the Hat in the Amniotic Sac: Decasper and Spence 1986 -pregnant women read target story aloud for an average of 3.5 hours, during the last 6 wks of pregnancy -at test, 16 infants reinforced with same story or control (and read either by mother or another woman), produced the target more often

Piaget Stage 4 (8-12m): Infant Thinking

-application of familiar means to new situations- the coordination of secondary schemas -intelligence consists in finding the right means

Rich vs. Lean Interpretations

-are there lower-level; "perceptual" explanations (LEAN) or higher-level, "cognitive" explanations (RICH) -Meltzoff and Moore suggest that infants are thinking, for example, understand that what they see corresponds to what they do, indicates "cross-modal matching" (RICH) -infant sees model like me

Parent Conversations Shape Memories for Events: Haden et. al. 2001

-assessed children at 2.5, 3, and 3.5 years of age with their mothers -participated in pretend camping trip, bird-watching adventure, and opening of an icecream shop -tested memory recall of event 1 day and 3 weeks after -measured memory relation to mother and child engagement over event (joint verbal, mother-only verbal, child-only verbal, no verbal attention) / child recalled most with joint verbal discussion during event

Infant Visual Preference: What Develops and Why?

-complexity (infants younger than 2 months prefer striped patterns, while those older than 2 months prefer a bullseye/ preferred level of complexity in a a checkerboard pattern. increases with age) -acuity (acuity is improving and children look at what they can see) -no mutually exclusive

Theoretical Accounts of A-not-B Error

-conceptual misunderstanding -memory -proactive interference from memory -inhibition of proponent motor response -working memory and inhibition -coordination of means and ends -conscious awareness of goal -dev. of prefrontal cortical function

Search for Hidden Objects: Walter Hunter 1913,1917

-delayed-response: a task widely used with nonhuman animals, and impaired by lesions to dorsolateral PFC -3 unmarked boxes in semi-circle, object visibly in one (delay, search) -the longer the delay, the less correct she was in her search for the object

Attention and Memory Paradigms: Habituation and Recovery

-hearing (head-turn and sucking) -vision (looking)

Attention and Memory Paradigms

-hearing: sound localization (due to cortical control dev.) -vision: visual screening (prefer face-like-stimuli/ look at outside areas of contrast to looking at eyes and mouth/ shift from sub-cortical architextual ability to detect faces due to cortical processing)

Infant Perceptual Abilities: Touch, Temp., and Pain

-infant massage promotes physical growth and weight gain in preterm infants, reduces irritability and sleep disturbance in full-term infants (stimulates vagus nerve and promotes weight gain) -skin-to-skin contact and oral sucrose reduce signs of distress during painful procedures (reduces crying and grimacing later in life)

Intersensory integration

-infants are especially attentive to info simultaneously presented in more than one sensory modality; this tendency may help them to integrate sensory info into coherent whole -Ex: 4 month old infants show visual habituation to an object they have previously touched, but not seen

Perception and Action

-infants are increasingly able to use perceptual info to coordinate their actions -Ex: 7 month olds who have been crawling for several weeks appear fearful and will often refuse to cross the visual diff, while those who have not started to crawl do not show fear

Perception and Thought

-infants become better able to attend to and remember info independent of their immediate perceptual experience -Ex: 3.5 month old infants make anticipatory eye movements that predict the location of visual events in a sequence, such as right-left-right-lift or right-right-left-left

Sensation, Perception, and Subjective Experience

-infants experience best described as: "blooming, buzzing and confusion" (William James) "blind rhapsody of particulars" (John Dewey)

Infant Perceptual Abilities: Hearing

-infants particularly attentive to sounds in the frequency range of human speech (1,000-3,000 Hz) or mother-ese. Prefer high-pitch and exaggerated intonations and voice of mom -infants initially able to perceive speech contrasts not present in their native language, but this ability disappears during first year -sensitive to the statistical properties of linguistic input

Infant Perceptual Abilities: Taste and Smell

-infants prefer sweet and salty tastes to sour or bitter tastes; these preferences differs across development, and are shaped by experience -infants respond to a variety of odors at birth, and they show signs of habituation to odors, as well as the ability to learn pairings btw odors and reinforcing stimuli (formula-fed infants prefer breast odors to the odor of their own formula, and breast-fed infants prefer the odor of their own mother to that of another woman)

Hunter & Ames 1988

-infants show both novelty and familiarity preferences depending on age and complexity of stimuli -when still figuring something out, when still forming a representation of someting, show familiarity preference -when something has been figured out, and a representation is fully formed, show novelty preference

Newborn Imitation (Meltzoff and Moore 1977)

-matching behavior in newborn -imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates -basis of a number of theories of learning and dev.

Methods for Studying Perception: Notes

-most methods can be applied in any of several modalities, but vision and hearing most commonly used -researchers are creative, and several variations of these methods exist -infant researchers typically lose a substantial number of participants because the infants refuse to participate -performance on perceptual tasks is often used to make inferences abut what infants know or expect -- in general, it is very difficult to prove that infants do not have an ability

Tests of Short-term memory

-must take into account dev with age as well as expertise that leads to chunking -processing speed increased short-term capacity

Infant Perceptual Abilities: Balance and Movement

-newborn infants make swiping motions at objects in their field of vision; visually guided reaching develops by about 3 months -infants typically begin to crawl at around 7-9 months and are walking by age 1 -even very young infants shift their posture in response to visual info, but this ability improves with age -beginning crawlers and walkers have difficulty adjusting their movements to the terrain

Infant Perceptual Abilities: Vision

-newborn vision is relatively poor bc the lens and retina are still maturing, and although the infant can track moving objects, eye movements are not reliably coordinated -infants prefer patterned to plain stimuli, and are especially attentive to movement, contrast, symmetry, and curvature (biological/human movement) -perception of depth develops relatively late: binocular cues to depth are perceived at about 4 months, and pictorial depth cues are perceived at about 7 months

Daphne Maurer's Alternative

-not recognition of similarities across modalities, but rather neonatal synesthesia -young infants fail to keep track of the modality by which info is acquired, so generalize from one modality to another -by 3mths, start to keep track and do not generalize -at a later age, infants recognize that there are multiple ways of learning about the same object, so again generalize across modalities

Habituation suggests Memory

-older infants require less exposure to show a dishabituation to novelty -older infants can retain recognition over longer delays (3mo old 2 min but not 24 hour delay; 6mo old 2 min and 24 hour delay)

Implicit Memory and Learning: Rovee-Collier 1993

-operant conditioning of kicking mobile/ delayed recognition -reactivation paradigm (even though the training memory is forgotten after 6-8 days, a single reminder presented to 3mth olds at 2 weeks after training, restores memory to full strength) -age changes in reactivation (memory retrieval becomes faster with age) -extreme context sensitivity (if you change the liner on the cribs, 6 mth olds fail to recognize even after one day) -associative links btw things (cue/liner and mobile , contiguousDo in space and time/cue elicits response) -explicit memory does not come until about 12 mth

Two-Choice Preference Procedure of Faces Research Example

-participants (0-5 month old infants) -procedure (present pairs of face-shaped disk; measure looking time to each disk) -results( infants of all ages preferred a face-like stimulus to a blank stimulus; there was a slight preference for a schematic or a scrambled face)

Habituation and Recovery : High-Amplitude Sucking - Research Example

-participants (1 month olds) -procedures (reinforced for energetic sucks with a phoneme (ba) / the amplitude sucking wanes over time (habituation) / then new phoneme (pa) introduced / re-energization of sucking implies discrimination of the phonemes -results (infants perceive phonemes (ba/pa) categorically, even though the shift btw them is continuous

Imitation (Experiment 2)

-participants (12 infants about a month old) -procedure (pacifier in mouth for 30s; 150sec baseline during which behavior is measured; pacifier, display until watched for 15sec; experimenter resumes passive face, removes pacifier, 150s test; repeat with second gesture; videotapes scored by blind observer) -results ( more mouth-opening test than baseline; more tongue protrusion than baseline; more MO after MO, TP after TP)

Visual Scanning Research Example

-participants (2 and 12 week old infants) -procedure (infants were shown simple geometric figures while a video camera was used to record eye movements) -results (2wk olds limited to angles/ areas of contrast/ 12wk olds extensive scanning, but still not adult like)

Violation of Expectation/Surprise Paradigm Research Example

-participants (4 month olds) -procedure (infants habituated to either a display showing a box with two sections of a rod moving in alignment behind it or a display showing a box wth one moving and one stationary section of a rod behind it / after habituation, infants were presented with two types of test trails with a complete rod or two sections of a rod) results (infants who had seen the sections of rod move in alignment behind the box dishabituated on test trials with two sections of rod, but not on trials with a complete rod; infants who had not seen the rode move in alignment looked equally long at both types of test trials)

Cohen and Younger 1984: Holism and Infant Perception of Angular Reactions

-participants (6 and 14 month olds) -procedure (habituated to 45-degree angle/ tested on transformations; preserved or changed angle; preserved or changed the orientations of the line segments) -results (14 wk olds increased attention only to novel angles; 6 wk old increased attention only when the line segments were in new orientations; older infants processed the stimulus as a whole angle, while younger had processed the same stimulus as separate line segments in particular orientations)

Conditioned Head Turn Research Example

-participants (6 month old infants in English-speaking households; Canadian adults that were trilingual) -procedures (tested on contrasts presented in English and Hindi/ infants were trained to look toward a loud speaker when they noticed a contrast to produce an interesting visual display/ adults pressed a button when they noticed a contrast) -results (a majority of infants and Hindi-speaking adults could discriminate the Hindi contrasts/ English speaking could not discriminate Hindi contrasts)

Usher and Neisser 1993: Infantile Amnesia

-participants (college students answered questions about events occurring when they were 1-5 years of age) -procedure (looked at major life events; responses judged for accuracy by parents) -results (earliest age of recall was 2 for hospitalization and birth memories; age 3 for death and move memories; most memories recalled were judged as accurate by mothers)

Operant Conditioning of Head Turning Research Example

-participants (newborn infants) -procedure (tone and buzzer as discriminate stimuli/ rewarded with sweet-tasting solution for head turn toward a brush on the cheek paired with one of the sounds/ then contingencies reversed) -results (newborns learned reversals in about 10 trials)

Classical Conditioning Research Example

-participants (newborn infants; 24 healthy and 24 born to diabetic mothers and exposed to heel lances) -procedure (compared responses to venipuncture of hand completed as part of blood test at one day old) -results (infants exposed to repeated heel lances showed increased facial grimacing and pain-related behavior when their skin was cleaned with an alcohol wipe before the blood test, infants did not)

Inter-(Cross)- modal Matching (Meltzoff and Borton 1979)

-procedure (90sec oral exploration of smooth or nubby pacifier/ 20sec visual test looking at smooth or nubby styrofoam/ 75% fixated on the matching shape -postive results indicate neonates can (1) tactually discriminate btw the shapes presented (2) visually discriminate btw them (3) store some representation of the tactually perceived shape (4) relate a subsequent visual perception to the stored representation of the tactually shape

Piaget Stage 3 (4-8m): Infant Thinking

-procedures to make interesting sights last; secondary circular reactions -rediscovering and happens

Learning to Remember: Role of Joint Reminiscing - Sociocultural Perspective and Vygotsky

-proposed by Katherine Nelson -memories are product of interactions btw cognitive abilities and language: sufficient cog. abilities necessary, insufficient -thru joint reminiscing; children construct an organizational system for sharing memories (narrative structure) -early narrative structure (story telling sequence)

Learning to Remember: Scripts

-scripts: organization of real-world events according to their causal and temporal properties -preschoolers exhibit better recall of events that have a logical as opposed to an arbitrary sequence -tend to recall routine events in a script like fashion (often at expense of remembering specific features of an event)

Postnatal Dev. of Sensory Capacities

-sensory capacities continue to develop postnatally, but it is increasingly difficult to separate sensation from perception when we examine the infant's behavior -prenatal looking at response -postnatal response tied to cognition and action

Initial Thoughts on Memory

-study of memory has a long and venerable history in psychology -memory plays a central role in virtually every aspect of our psychological lives -relation of the study of adult memory and memory dev is best thought of as bi-directional in nature -memory is not one system

Piaget Stage 5 (12-18m): Infant Thinking

-tertiary reactions: trial and error exploration

Piaget Stage 6 (18-24m): Infant Thinking

-the invention of new means thru mental combination

Prenatal Dev. of Sensory Capacities

-touch -taste and smell -hearing -vision -balance and movement

Cross-cultural Differences in Memory Conversations: Mullen and Yi

-white moms spent more time talking about events/ joint reminiscing than Korean moms

Dev. in Event Recall

-with age, infants can retain more objects in a sequence and can remember for longer periods of time

Dimensions of Variation in Dev. Psych.

1. Active vs. Passive 2. Experience vs. Maturation 3. Domain Specificity vs. Generality 4. Knowledge vs. Processing 5. Child like Adult vs. Not like Adult

Traditional Learning Paradigms

1. Classical Conditioning (puff air in eye + tone = blink --> tone = blink) 2. Operant Conditioning (kick + mobile moves = increased kicking)

Methods for Studying Responsivenss

1. Movement (head-turning) 2. Heart Rate (acceleration and deceleration) 3. Neuroendocrine Response 4. Neurological Activity 5. Others (looking time)

Methods for Studying Infant Perception

1. Traditional Learning Paradigms (Classical and Operant Conditioning) 2. Attention and Memory Paradigms (Perceptual Processing, Preference: Two Choice or Sequential, Habituation and Recovery, Conditioned Head Turn, Violation of Expectation/Surprise)

Attention and Memory Paradigms: Two-Choice or Sequential

1. hearing (looking to listen and high-amplitude sucking) -two-choice: present sound that matches one visual stimulus, but not other and measure sucking -sequential: alternate different sounds, compare looking time to a picture, light, etc. during each sound -two-choice: present two sounds, with type of sound depending on sucking rate -sequential: present sound that illicit a high-amplitude suck; change type of sound by sucking 2. vision (looking time) -two choice: measure looking when two stimulus simultaneously presented -sequential: measure looking to sequential stimuli

Characteristics of Out Memories for Childhood

1. relatively little research on the qualities of early memories 2. emotionally charged (often negative) 3. from a first-person perspective 4. visual info (color, spatial location, image detail) 5. gender diff (women less confident/ rate them as less visual and less intense)

violation of expectation method

A visual preference research method that assesses infants' ability to distinguish between an expected and an unexpected event.

intersensory matching

a child must be able to recognize an object initially inspected on one modality through another modality

perceptual narrowing

a developmental process during which the brain uses environmental experiences to shape perceptual abilities

A-not-B object permanence task

an object is hidden in on location and then later moved to a second, all the while the child is watching, the infant searches at the first location and often acts quite surprised not to find the desired object

object constancy

an understanding that objects remain the same, irrespective of differences in viewing condition

coordination of vision

both eyes following moving stimulus in coordinated fashion; improve during first months of life and are adult-like by 6 months

convergence of vision

both eyes looking at the same object; an ability not possessed by newborns

implicit measures of cognition

capture aspects of cognition that are unconscious and cannot be expressed directly or verbally

Holism

construction of higher-order relations among lower-level units

object cohesion and continuity

individual objects are seen as cohesive wholes with distinctive boundaries

Differentiation Theory

infants actively search for invariant features of the environment- those that remain stable- in a constantly changing perceptual world

Salapatek and Externality Effect

infants of one month of age direct their attention primarily to the outside of a figure and spend little time inspecting internal features

accomodation of lens

lenses change shape to focus on objects near or far poor at birth; mostly see everything unclearly

Bayesian Statistical Interference

mathematical probability theory that accounts for learning as a process by which prior knowledge is compared to currently observed evidence

Are infants born with the ability to perceive their internal states and surroundings, or is perception learned?

nativist: innate empiricists: learned structuralists: neither; produced to elaboration and refinement

principle of persistence

objects not only exist continuously and remain cohesive, they also retain their ind properties. according to this principle, no object can undergo a spontaneous or uncaused change in the course of an event

Verbal Abilities at Encoding Influence Later Memory (Simcock and Hayne 2002)

participants (2.5/3 year olds experienced unique event - magic shrinking room) -procedure (children recall tested 6 months or 1 year later; asked open-ended questions, directed questions, and finally shown picture of machine/ behavior re-enactment and photo recognition) -results (children didn't use language to recall event that hadn't been in their vocab at time of encoding/ no evidence that children can translate preverbal experiences into language)

Event Memory (Deferred Imitation): Carver and Bauer 1999

procedure: infants played with props (baseline); experimenter modeled each test event twice; re-exposure session 1 week after later where infants saw 2 of 6 tests; recall session 1 month later -results: evidence of episodic memory after 1mth; 9mth performed the events but had trouble replicating sequence; about 50% recalled entire sequence of event

Perception

process of attending to, identifying, and locating sensory information -depends on complex neurobiological and biochemical processes -perception included s the inference of information that is not present in the stimulus

Dishabituation

recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation

explicit measures of cognition

require participant report on the contents of cognition or behavior must be directly observable

Phonemes

smallest unit of sound

Numerosity

the ability to determine quickly the number of items in a set without counting

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Infantile Amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood. usually autobiographical events

ordinality

the mathematical principle specifying order relationships (more than and less than) between quantities

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races