cognition final
anchoring
the tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind
Which term best reflects the core concept of echoic memory?
time
Perceiving machines are used by the U.S. Postal Service to "read" the addresses on letters and sort them quickly to their correct destinations. Sometimes, these machines cannot read an address because the writing on the envelope is not sufficiently clear for the machine to match the writing to an example it has stored in memory. Human postal workers are much more successful at reading unclear addresses, most likely because of
top-down processing.
Who described how exceptions to the conventional paradigm help to create a paradigm shift and scientific revolutions?
Thomas Kuhn
Which of the following attention model components produces two levels of output?
Treisman's attenuator
Two different definitions of ___________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "categories of objects, events, and abstract ideas."
concepts
One of the key properties of the ___________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.
connectionist
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
conceptual knowledge
knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties
The demonstration in your text that asks you to visualize scenes such as an office, a department store clothing section, a lion, and a microscope often results in more details in the scene of the office or department store than the scene with the lion or microscope. The latter two tend to have fewer details because most individuals from modern society have less knowledge of _____ in those scenes.
semantic regularities
garden path sentences
sentences that begin by appearing to mean one thing, but then end up meaning something else
latest age to learn language
seven
conjunction problem
the liklihood of two events is always less than the liklihood of one of the two
Experience dependent plasticity
the mechanism through which the structure of the brain is changed by experience
The idea that we remember life events, like the 9-11 attacks, better because we encounter the information over and over in what we read, see on TV, and talk about with other people is called
the narrative rehearsal hypothesis.
The repeated reproduction technique used in memory studies involves
the same participants remembering some information at longer and longer intervals after learning the information.
Shortly after your wedding, you remember many of the vivid details of the event. Over many years, most of the vivid details of your personal experience begin to fade and you remember the abstract, factual information about the event, like when and where it was and the names of the individuals that were present. This process is referred to as
the semanticization of memory
contiguity
the tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as being related
Researchers understood that KF had experienced a decline in short-term memory capacity because he had a digit span of ________ .
two
An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ___________ effect.
typicality
Which book was written by Thomas Kuhn?
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
If you wanted to be best remembered in a sequence of 5 candidates for a position of employment, which position would probably be best?
first
According to the typicality effect
items that are high in prototypically are judged more rapidly as being in a group
The main point of the Donders' reaction time experiments was to
measure the amount of time it takes to make a decision
The process for determining resting-state functional connectivity involves:
measuring resting-state fMRI at one location and another location over the same period of time
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the ___________ experiment.
mental walk
Interleaving is effective because it involves all of the following EXCEPT:
metacognition (thinking about your thinking)
In which year was positron emission tomography (PET) introduced and made it possible to see which areas of the human brain are activated during cognitive activity?
1976
Digit span tests of short-term memory suggest that most people can retain how many items in working memory?
7-9 items
lexical decision task
A procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or a nonword.
high-load tasks
A task that uses most or all of a person's resources and so leaves little capacity to handle other tasks.
Which statement below is NOT true, based on the results of memory research?
Although eyewitness testimony is often faulty, people who have just viewed a videotape of a crime are quite accurate at picking the "perpetrator" from a lineup.
Which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x2 + 5x - 7 = 4x2 - 2x + 8?
Analytical
According to the hub and spoke model, which area of the brain serves as the hub?
Anterior temporal lobe (ATL)
You are studying in the library when you hear a commotion across the room and your attention is quickly absorbed in the source of the sound
Attentional capture
Which event helped usher in the cognitive revolution?
Chomsky's work at MIT
The phrase "Pairing one stimulus with another" is most associated with which of the following?
Classical conditioning
All of the following are true about cognitive dissonance EXCEPT:
Cognitive dissonance is rare
In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?
Comma
Which type of words would be hardest to retain in working memory due to the phonological loop?
DOB, SOB, BOB, TOP, FOB, ROB
What contains the words, stored in memory, each of which has a threshold for being activated?
Dictionary unit
The idea that cognitive functions simultaneously activate many areas of the brain
Distributed representation
The fusiform face area (FFA) in the brain is often damaged in patients with
prosopagnosia
episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
According to your text, the key to solving the Wason four-card problem is
the falsification principle.
Consciousness comes from the Latin "Con" and "Scious" which implies
"with" and "science/observation"
How many neurons are there in the brain?
100 billion
Who investigated the electrical signals of neurons?
Edgar Adrian
Which of the following is NOT associated with the semantic network model?
Family resemblance
Results of a 100 car naturalistic study (Dingus et al., 2006) suggest all of the following EXCEPT:
Hands free phone use (i.e., bluetooth) helps drivers considerably
Which of the following memories is no longer processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobes?
How to ride a bike
Who developed cognitive dissonance theory?
Leon Festinger
Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?
Meaning dominance
implicit memory
Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously
Kosslyn (1973)
Memorize picture, create an image of it In image, move from one part of the picture to another It took longer for participants to mentally move long distances than shorter distances Like perception, imagery is spatial Island experiment
Your text describes an experiment by Talarico and Rubin (2003) that measured people's memories of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Which of the following was the primary result of that research?
Participants had high confidence in the accuracy of their memories of the terrorist events 32 weeks later, but when actually tested made significant errors when asked what they were doing on the day of the attacks.
Which of the following statements about "psychology" is FALSE?
Psychology is mainly the study of the brain and does not have any application in our everyday lives.
Which of the following statements is NOT accurate?
Semantics and lexicons are equal in scope.
Which of the following statements about short-term memory is FALSE?
Short-term memory stores an exact replica of sensory stimuli.
Endel Tulving, one of the most prominent early memory researchers, proposed that long-term memory is subdivided into all of the following components EXCEPT
Short-term memory.
Which of the following terms best describes the concept of entrainment?
Similarity
Pylyshyn
Spatial representation is an epiphenomenon
According to the cognitive hypothesis, experiences that occur during periods of rapid personal development followed by periods of stability tend to be easier to remember due to which of the following?
Strong encoding
Rosen (2015) demonstrated that during a 15 minute study session
Students only focus for about 6 minutes before interruptions
System 1 vs. System 2
System 1: automatic evaluation based on pre-set assumptions System 2: Slower, more effortful, deliberate processing
global level
The highest level in Rosch's categorization scheme (e.g., "furniture" or "vehicles").
How is the term mind used in this statement: "When he talks about his encounter with aliens, it sounds like he is out of his mind"?
The mind as a healthy mind being associated with normal functioning, a nonfunctioning mind with abnormal functioning.
Members of a security team are stationed on rooftops surrounding a large city plaza before a scheduled rally. Suddenly, three team members in different locations radio in to the command center, each stating that they have spotted a suspicious box on the ground with a pipe coming from the top. What enables the security team members to report seeing the same object despite being stationed on different rooftops?
Viewpoint invariance
When does bottom-up processing start?
When environmental energy stimulates the receptors
Imagine that lawmakers are considering changing the driving laws and that you have been consulted as an attention expert. Given the principles of divided attention, in which of the following conditions would a person have the most difficulty with driving and therefore pose the biggest safety risk on the road?
When the person is driving an unfamiliar vehicle that is more difficult to operate.
Lamar has just gotten a new job and is attending a company party where he will meet his colleagues for the first time. His boss escorts him around to small groups to introduce him. At the first group, Lamar meets four people and is told only their first names. The same thing happens with a second group and a third group. At the fourth group, Lamar is told their names and that one of the women in the group is the company accountant. A little while later, Lamar realizes that he only remembers the names of the people in the first group, though he also remembers the profession of the last woman he met (the accountant). Lamar's experience demonstrates
a build-up and release of proactive interference.
You just received a new job and you are meeting your coworkers for the first time at a training event. Your coworkers are in groups of 4 with a balanced mix of males and females in each group. You only get the first names of each individual in each group. By the fourth group, you finally get more information and are told that the woman in that group, Ruth, is the secretary for the company. Later you realize that you only remember the names of individuals in the first group and Ruth. This experience demonstrates...
a build-up and release of proactive interference.
top-down processing
a progression from the whole to the elements
low-load tasks
a task that uses only a small amount of the person's perceptual capacity
If you stand very close to a pointillist painting, all you will see are tiny colored dots. But as you step away from the painting, larger areas of color become noticeable and eventually become recognizable objects such as flowers or clouds. This is similar to which of the following?
binding
In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the _________________ group had the fastest response time.
bread and butter
The conclusion to be drawn from the man named Shereshevskii whose abnormal brain functioning gave him virtually limitless word-for-word memory is that having memory like a video recorder
can seriously disrupt functioning in one's personal life
In Donders's experiment on decision making, when participants were asked to press one button if the light on the left was illuminated and another button if the light on the right was illuminated, they were engaged in a
choice reaction time task.
Measuring the amount of time a person requires to complete different cognitive tasks is the goal of mental ________.
chronometry
Mantyla's (1986) study suggests that we should
create our own retrieval cues
Unconscious plagiarism of the work of others is known as
cryptoamnesia
Stroop Effect
delay in reaction time when color of words on a test and their meaning differ
Synesthesia
describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound")
Wernicke's aphasia is associated with which of the following:
difficulty speaking in coherent sentences or understanding others' speech
The four proposals addressing the representation of concepts in the brain all agree that the information is ________.
distributed
The idea that specific cognitive functions activate many areas of the brain is known as
distributed representation
Which of the following best describes the result of attention in the context of perception?
enhancement
Research suggests that the ___________ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents).
exemplar
Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she takes a route on her drive home that goes past the abandoned shacks, but she feels more negative when she takes a route that goes past the mansions with large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by
framing effect
Broca's aphasia
inability to produce speech
The primacy effect (from the serial position curve experiment) is associated with ___________ memory.
long-term
If you are folding towels while watching television, you may find that you don't have to pay much attention to the act of folding while keeping up with the storyline on the TV show. Folding the towels would be an example of a(n) ________ task.
low-load
By comparing reaction times across different tasks, Donders was able to conclude how long the mind needs to perform a certain cognitive task. Donders interpreted the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions of his experiment as indicating how long it took to
make a decision about the stimulus.
The Stroop effect demonstrates the inability and difficulty to ignore the __________ of words.
meaning
The landmark discrimination problem is more difficult to do if you have damage to your _____ lobe.
parietal
Robin lost the softball game for her team when she ran toward home and was thrown out at the plate. The coach asked her, "Why did you run? You knew it was a risky move." Robin replied, "But I heard you yell, 'Go! Go!'" The coach replied, "I was saying, 'No! No!'" Robin's ill-fated run was the result of a ________ error.
phonological
__________ occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the sentence.
pragmatic inference
What brain region is associated with modulating our emotions, empathy, and insight/intuition when activated?
prefrontal cortex
Funahashi's work on monkeys doing a delayed response task examined the role of neurons in the
prefrontal cortex.
Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on
psycholinguistics.
inductive reasoning
reasoning from detailed facts to general principles. Example: Maximilian is a shelter dog. He is happy. All shelter dogs are happy.
deductive reasoning
reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)
B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through
reinforcement
Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving
reorganization or restructuring.
Suppose you're on the phone with a customer support representative who gives you a ticket number for your records. You're later transferred to a different representative who asks for your ticket number, but you've forgotten it. This probably occurred because the number was only temporarily stored in your
short term memory
Observations that people may actually process and manipulate information rather than simply store it for brief periods of time challenged the conceptualization of
short-term memory.
You are at a parade where there are a number of marching bands. You perceive the bands that are all in the same uniforms as being grouped together. The red uniforms are one band, the green uniforms another, and so forth. You have this perceptual experience because of the law of
similarity
The propaganda effect demonstrates that we evaluate familiar statements as being true
simply because we have been exposed to them before.
Research suggests that the capacity of short-term memory is
somewhat small, holding only about seven items at one time.
The idea that an object could be represented by the firing of a specialized neuron that responds only to that object is called
specificity coding
When Carlos moved to the United States, he did not understand any English. Phrases like "Anna Mary Can Pi and I Scream Class Hick" didn't make any sense to him. Now that Carlos has been learning English, he recognizes this phrase as "An American Pie and Ice Cream Classic." This example illustrates that Carlos was not capable of ____ in English.
speech segmentation
procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things
dual-process model
the idea that two modes of thinking exist within the human brain, one for intuitive emotional responses and one for analytical reasoning
Bransford and Johnson demonstrated
the importance of organization when encoding information into LTM
temporary ambiguity
the initial words of a sentence can lead to more than one meaning but the meaning is made clear at the end
scene schema
the knowledge of what a given scene ordinarily contains
Items high on prototypicality have ___________ family resemblances.
strong
Endel Tulving
suggested 2 kinds of long-term memory: episodic and semantic
What is the typical duration of short-term memory?
10-15 seconds
The effective duration of short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is
15-20 seconds or less.
Despite scientific evidence to the contrary, Harry believes that drinking dandelion tea would improve his long-term memory because he saw several news stories and articles about it online. What is Harry experiencing?
Illusory truth effect
Mental scanning experiments found
a direct relationship between scanning time and distance on the image
Heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
cognitive dissonance
an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs
Which of the following terms does NOT reflect functional network activity in the brain?
consistent
In our "word list" false memory experiment in class where several students incorrectly remembered hearing the word sleep, false memory occurs because of
constructive memory processes.
Palmer's experiment, in which he asked people to identify objects in a kitchen, showed how _______ can affect perception:
context
In the text's use of the Olympic Rings example, which Gestalt law contributes to the correct perception of five interlocking circles rather than nine separate segments?
contiguity
The dramatic case of patient H.M. most clearly illustrates that ___________ is crucial for the formation of new memories.
hippocampus
What brain region is most associated with explicit memory?
hippocampus
Stephen Palmer's (1975) experiment illustrates
how knowledge about the environment can influence our perception
framing
how people react to a choice in different ways depending on how it is presented
One reason that most people do not easily solve the original (abstract) version of the Wason four-card problem is that they
ignore the falsification principle.
"Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT
imagery requires a special mechanism.
You are walking down the street and see a nice car drive by. You notice its color, movement, and shape. All of these features are processed
in different parts of the brain.
The task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on one's retina is called the
inverse projection problem.
Sanfey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the _________________ decision of ____.
irrational; accepting only high offers
Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a poodle and the other a German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal
is a breed of dog that is hairless and teacup-sized.
In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that
it is harder to manipulate mental images than perceptual images.
linguistic determinism
language determines the way we think. Hopi culture do not have past-tense words so it is hard for them to think about the past
depictive representation
representations that are like realistic pictures of an object
Syntax is the
rules for combining words into sentences.
As the ________ of a stimulus increases, ________ tends to ________.
salience; fixation; increase
Information remains in sensory memory for
seconds or a fraction of a second
The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from
seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.
Remembering that a tomato is a fruit rather than a vegetable is an example of ___________ memory.
semantic
Which of the following is NOT an example of an implicit memory?
semantic memory
Hyde and Jenkins demonstrated
that the level of processing is more important than one's intention to learn
bottom-up processing
the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception
Gambler's Fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
One function of ___________ is to pull information out of long-term memory.
the central executive
For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that
the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi.
The ability to perceive an object as the same from different angles is known as
viewpoint invariance
The majority of the cortex is devoted to which sense
vision
Which substance is released when signals reach the synapse at the end of the axon?
neurotransmitters
do prototypes exist in reality
no
In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a
node
John Watson believed that psychology should focus on the study of
observable behavior
Monique is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using
a depictive representation.
A technique in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli is known as
analytic introspection
heuristics
any approach to problem solving that employs a practical method even though it is not perfect but is sufficient for reaching an immediate goal Ex: what is a cheerleader? you may not know much about them but you know enough to classify one as a cheerleader
Your text's discussion of false memories leads to the conclusion that false memories
arise from the same constructive processes that produce true memories.
A task with the instructions "Read the following words while repeating 'the, the, the' out loud, look away, and then write down the words you remember" would most likely be studying
articulatory suppression.
Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus
facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.
Your text's discussion of eyewitness testimony illustrates that this type of memory is frequently influenced by all of the following EXCEPT
failing to elaboratively rehearse these kinds of events due to fear.
Neurons that respond to specific qualities of objects, such as orientation, movement, and length, are called
feature detectors.
Rosa is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Rosa decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _________________ , she will use a _________________ strategy.
gains; risk-aversion
Experts categorize problems based on
general principles that problems share
__________________are recurring structures within cognitive processes which establishes patterns of conceptual understanding. They are formed from our bodily interactions.
image schemas
Shepard and Metzler's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated
imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms.
availability heuristic
making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
