cognition final

anchoring

the tendency, in making judgments, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind

Which term best reflects the core concept of echoic memory?

time

Perceiving machines are used by the U.S. Postal Service to "read" the addresses on letters and sort them quickly to their correct destinations. Sometimes, these machines cannot read an address because the writing on the envelope is not sufficiently clear for the machine to match the writing to an example it has stored in memory. Human postal workers are much more successful at reading unclear addresses, most likely because of

top-down processing.

Who described how exceptions to the conventional paradigm help to create a paradigm shift and scientific revolutions?

Thomas Kuhn

Which of the following attention model components produces two levels of output?

Treisman's attenuator

Two different definitions of ___________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "categories of objects, events, and abstract ideas."

concepts

One of the key properties of the ___________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.

connectionist

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

conceptual knowledge

knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties

The demonstration in your text that asks you to visualize scenes such as an office, a department store clothing section, a lion, and a microscope often results in more details in the scene of the office or department store than the scene with the lion or microscope. The latter two tend to have fewer details because most individuals from modern society have less knowledge of _____ in those scenes.

semantic regularities

garden path sentences

sentences that begin by appearing to mean one thing, but then end up meaning something else

latest age to learn language

seven

conjunction problem

the liklihood of two events is always less than the liklihood of one of the two

Experience dependent plasticity

the mechanism through which the structure of the brain is changed by experience

The idea that we remember life events, like the 9-11 attacks, better because we encounter the information over and over in what we read, see on TV, and talk about with other people is called

the narrative rehearsal hypothesis.

The repeated reproduction technique used in memory studies involves

the same participants remembering some information at longer and longer intervals after learning the information.

Shortly after your wedding, you remember many of the vivid details of the event. Over many years, most of the vivid details of your personal experience begin to fade and you remember the abstract, factual information about the event, like when and where it was and the names of the individuals that were present. This process is referred to as

the semanticization of memory

contiguity

the tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as being related

Researchers understood that KF had experienced a decline in short-term memory capacity because he had a digit span of ________ .

two

An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ___________ effect.

typicality

Which book was written by Thomas Kuhn?

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

If you wanted to be best remembered in a sequence of 5 candidates for a position of employment, which position would probably be best?

first

According to the typicality effect

items that are high in prototypically are judged more rapidly as being in a group

The main point of the Donders' reaction time experiments was to

measure the amount of time it takes to make a decision

The process for determining resting-state functional connectivity involves:

measuring resting-state fMRI at one location and another location over the same period of time

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the ___________ experiment.

mental walk

Interleaving is effective because it involves all of the following EXCEPT:

metacognition (thinking about your thinking)

In which year was positron emission tomography (PET) introduced and made it possible to see which areas of the human brain are activated during cognitive activity?

1976

Digit span tests of short-term memory suggest that most people can retain how many items in working memory?

7-9 items

lexical decision task

A procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or a nonword.

high-load tasks

A task that uses most or all of a person's resources and so leaves little capacity to handle other tasks.

Which statement below is NOT true, based on the results of memory research?

Although eyewitness testimony is often faulty, people who have just viewed a videotape of a crime are quite accurate at picking the "perpetrator" from a lineup.

Which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x2 + 5x - 7 = 4x2 - 2x + 8?

Analytical

According to the hub and spoke model, which area of the brain serves as the hub?

Anterior temporal lobe (ATL)

You are studying in the library when you hear a commotion across the room and your attention is quickly absorbed in the source of the sound

Attentional capture

Which event helped usher in the cognitive revolution?

Chomsky's work at MIT

The phrase "Pairing one stimulus with another" is most associated with which of the following?

Classical conditioning

All of the following are true about cognitive dissonance EXCEPT:

Cognitive dissonance is rare

In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?

Comma

Which type of words would be hardest to retain in working memory due to the phonological loop?

DOB, SOB, BOB, TOP, FOB, ROB

What contains the words, stored in memory, each of which has a threshold for being activated?

Dictionary unit

The idea that cognitive functions simultaneously activate many areas of the brain

Distributed representation

The fusiform face area (FFA) in the brain is often damaged in patients with

prosopagnosia

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

According to your text, the key to solving the Wason four-card problem is

the falsification principle.

Consciousness comes from the Latin "Con" and "Scious" which implies

"with" and "science/observation"

How many neurons are there in the brain?

100 billion

Who investigated the electrical signals of neurons?

Edgar Adrian

Which of the following is NOT associated with the semantic network model?

Family resemblance

Results of a 100 car naturalistic study (Dingus et al., 2006) suggest all of the following EXCEPT:

Hands free phone use (i.e., bluetooth) helps drivers considerably

Which of the following memories is no longer processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobes?

How to ride a bike

Who developed cognitive dissonance theory?

Leon Festinger

Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?

Meaning dominance

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

Kosslyn (1973)

Memorize picture, create an image of it In image, move from one part of the picture to another It took longer for participants to mentally move long distances than shorter distances Like perception, imagery is spatial Island experiment

Your text describes an experiment by Talarico and Rubin (2003) that measured people's memories of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Which of the following was the primary result of that research?

Participants had high confidence in the accuracy of their memories of the terrorist events 32 weeks later, but when actually tested made significant errors when asked what they were doing on the day of the attacks.

Which of the following statements about "psychology" is FALSE?

Psychology is mainly the study of the brain and does not have any application in our everyday lives.

Which of the following statements is NOT accurate?

Semantics and lexicons are equal in scope.

Which of the following statements about short-term memory is FALSE?

Short-term memory stores an exact replica of sensory stimuli.

Endel Tulving, one of the most prominent early memory researchers, proposed that long-term memory is subdivided into all of the following components EXCEPT

Short-term memory.

Which of the following terms best describes the concept of entrainment?

Similarity

Pylyshyn

Spatial representation is an epiphenomenon

According to the cognitive hypothesis, experiences that occur during periods of rapid personal development followed by periods of stability tend to be easier to remember due to which of the following?

Strong encoding

Rosen (2015) demonstrated that during a 15 minute study session

Students only focus for about 6 minutes before interruptions

System 1 vs. System 2

System 1: automatic evaluation based on pre-set assumptions System 2: Slower, more effortful, deliberate processing

global level

The highest level in Rosch's categorization scheme (e.g., "furniture" or "vehicles").

How is the term mind used in this statement: "When he talks about his encounter with aliens, it sounds like he is out of his mind"?

The mind as a healthy mind being associated with normal functioning, a nonfunctioning mind with abnormal functioning.

Members of a security team are stationed on rooftops surrounding a large city plaza before a scheduled rally. Suddenly, three team members in different locations radio in to the command center, each stating that they have spotted a suspicious box on the ground with a pipe coming from the top. What enables the security team members to report seeing the same object despite being stationed on different rooftops?

Viewpoint invariance

When does bottom-up processing start?

When environmental energy stimulates the receptors

Imagine that lawmakers are considering changing the driving laws and that you have been consulted as an attention expert. Given the principles of divided attention, in which of the following conditions would a person have the most difficulty with driving and therefore pose the biggest safety risk on the road?

When the person is driving an unfamiliar vehicle that is more difficult to operate.

Lamar has just gotten a new job and is attending a company party where he will meet his colleagues for the first time. His boss escorts him around to small groups to introduce him. At the first group, Lamar meets four people and is told only their first names. The same thing happens with a second group and a third group. At the fourth group, Lamar is told their names and that one of the women in the group is the company accountant. A little while later, Lamar realizes that he only remembers the names of the people in the first group, though he also remembers the profession of the last woman he met (the accountant). Lamar's experience demonstrates

a build-up and release of proactive interference.

You just received a new job and you are meeting your coworkers for the first time at a training event. Your coworkers are in groups of 4 with a balanced mix of males and females in each group. You only get the first names of each individual in each group. By the fourth group, you finally get more information and are told that the woman in that group, Ruth, is the secretary for the company. Later you realize that you only remember the names of individuals in the first group and Ruth. This experience demonstrates...

a build-up and release of proactive interference.

top-down processing

a progression from the whole to the elements

low-load tasks

a task that uses only a small amount of the person's perceptual capacity

If you stand very close to a pointillist painting, all you will see are tiny colored dots. But as you step away from the painting, larger areas of color become noticeable and eventually become recognizable objects such as flowers or clouds. This is similar to which of the following?

binding

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the _________________ group had the fastest response time.

bread and butter

The conclusion to be drawn from the man named Shereshevskii whose abnormal brain functioning gave him virtually limitless word-for-word memory is that having memory like a video recorder

can seriously disrupt functioning in one's personal life

In Donders's experiment on decision making, when participants were asked to press one button if the light on the left was illuminated and another button if the light on the right was illuminated, they were engaged in a

choice reaction time task.

Measuring the amount of time a person requires to complete different cognitive tasks is the goal of mental ________.

chronometry

Mantyla's (1986) study suggests that we should

create our own retrieval cues

Unconscious plagiarism of the work of others is known as

cryptoamnesia

Stroop Effect

delay in reaction time when color of words on a test and their meaning differ

Synesthesia

describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound")

Wernicke's aphasia is associated with which of the following:

difficulty speaking in coherent sentences or understanding others' speech

The four proposals addressing the representation of concepts in the brain all agree that the information is ________.

distributed

The idea that specific cognitive functions activate many areas of the brain is known as

distributed representation

Which of the following best describes the result of attention in the context of perception?

enhancement

Research suggests that the ___________ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents).

exemplar

Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she takes a route on her drive home that goes past the abandoned shacks, but she feels more negative when she takes a route that goes past the mansions with large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by

framing effect

Broca's aphasia

inability to produce speech

The primacy effect (from the serial position curve experiment) is associated with ___________ memory.

long-term

If you are folding towels while watching television, you may find that you don't have to pay much attention to the act of folding while keeping up with the storyline on the TV show. Folding the towels would be an example of a(n) ________ task.

low-load

By comparing reaction times across different tasks, Donders was able to conclude how long the mind needs to perform a certain cognitive task. Donders interpreted the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions of his experiment as indicating how long it took to

make a decision about the stimulus.

The Stroop effect demonstrates the inability and difficulty to ignore the __________ of words.

meaning

The landmark discrimination problem is more difficult to do if you have damage to your _____ lobe.

parietal

Robin lost the softball game for her team when she ran toward home and was thrown out at the plate. The coach asked her, "Why did you run? You knew it was a risky move." Robin replied, "But I heard you yell, 'Go! Go!'" The coach replied, "I was saying, 'No! No!'" Robin's ill-fated run was the result of a ________ error.

phonological

__________ occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the sentence.

pragmatic inference

What brain region is associated with modulating our emotions, empathy, and insight/intuition when activated?

prefrontal cortex

Funahashi's work on monkeys doing a delayed response task examined the role of neurons in the

prefrontal cortex.

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics.

inductive reasoning

reasoning from detailed facts to general principles. Example: Maximilian is a shelter dog. He is happy. All shelter dogs are happy.

deductive reasoning

reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)

B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through

reinforcement

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving

reorganization or restructuring.

Suppose you're on the phone with a customer support representative who gives you a ticket number for your records. You're later transferred to a different representative who asks for your ticket number, but you've forgotten it. This probably occurred because the number was only temporarily stored in your

short term memory

Observations that people may actually process and manipulate information rather than simply store it for brief periods of time challenged the conceptualization of

short-term memory.

You are at a parade where there are a number of marching bands. You perceive the bands that are all in the same uniforms as being grouped together. The red uniforms are one band, the green uniforms another, and so forth. You have this perceptual experience because of the law of

similarity

The propaganda effect demonstrates that we evaluate familiar statements as being true

simply because we have been exposed to them before.

Research suggests that the capacity of short-term memory is

somewhat small, holding only about seven items at one time.

The idea that an object could be represented by the firing of a specialized neuron that responds only to that object is called

specificity coding

When Carlos moved to the United States, he did not understand any English. Phrases like "Anna Mary Can Pi and I Scream Class Hick" didn't make any sense to him. Now that Carlos has been learning English, he recognizes this phrase as "An American Pie and Ice Cream Classic." This example illustrates that Carlos was not capable of ____ in English.

speech segmentation

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

dual-process model

the idea that two modes of thinking exist within the human brain, one for intuitive emotional responses and one for analytical reasoning

Bransford and Johnson demonstrated

the importance of organization when encoding information into LTM

temporary ambiguity

the initial words of a sentence can lead to more than one meaning but the meaning is made clear at the end

scene schema

the knowledge of what a given scene ordinarily contains

Items high on prototypicality have ___________ family resemblances.

strong

Endel Tulving

suggested 2 kinds of long-term memory: episodic and semantic

What is the typical duration of short-term memory?

10-15 seconds

The effective duration of short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is

15-20 seconds or less.

Despite scientific evidence to the contrary, Harry believes that drinking dandelion tea would improve his long-term memory because he saw several news stories and articles about it online. What is Harry experiencing?

Illusory truth effect

Mental scanning experiments found

a direct relationship between scanning time and distance on the image

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

cognitive dissonance

an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs

Which of the following terms does NOT reflect functional network activity in the brain?

consistent

In our "word list" false memory experiment in class where several students incorrectly remembered hearing the word sleep, false memory occurs because of

constructive memory processes.

Palmer's experiment, in which he asked people to identify objects in a kitchen, showed how _______ can affect perception:

context

In the text's use of the Olympic Rings example, which Gestalt law contributes to the correct perception of five interlocking circles rather than nine separate segments?

contiguity

The dramatic case of patient H.M. most clearly illustrates that ___________ is crucial for the formation of new memories.

hippocampus

What brain region is most associated with explicit memory?

hippocampus

Stephen Palmer's (1975) experiment illustrates

how knowledge about the environment can influence our perception

framing

how people react to a choice in different ways depending on how it is presented

One reason that most people do not easily solve the original (abstract) version of the Wason four-card problem is that they

ignore the falsification principle.

"Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT

imagery requires a special mechanism.

You are walking down the street and see a nice car drive by. You notice its color, movement, and shape. All of these features are processed

in different parts of the brain.

The task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on one's retina is called the

inverse projection problem.

Sanfey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the _________________ decision of ____.

irrational; accepting only high offers

Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a poodle and the other a German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal

is a breed of dog that is hairless and teacup-sized.

In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that

it is harder to manipulate mental images than perceptual images.

linguistic determinism

language determines the way we think. Hopi culture do not have past-tense words so it is hard for them to think about the past

depictive representation

representations that are like realistic pictures of an object

Syntax is the

rules for combining words into sentences.

As the ________ of a stimulus increases, ________ tends to ________.

salience; fixation; increase

Information remains in sensory memory for

seconds or a fraction of a second

The water-jug problem demonstrates that one consequence of having a procedure that does provide a solution to a problem is that, if well-learned, it may prevent us from

seeing more efficient solutions to the problem.

Remembering that a tomato is a fruit rather than a vegetable is an example of ___________ memory.

semantic

Which of the following is NOT an example of an implicit memory?

semantic memory

Hyde and Jenkins demonstrated

that the level of processing is more important than one's intention to learn

bottom-up processing

the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

One function of ___________ is to pull information out of long-term memory.

the central executive

For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that

the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi.

The ability to perceive an object as the same from different angles is known as

viewpoint invariance

The majority of the cortex is devoted to which sense

vision

Which substance is released when signals reach the synapse at the end of the axon?

neurotransmitters

do prototypes exist in reality

no

In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a

node

John Watson believed that psychology should focus on the study of

observable behavior

Monique is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using

a depictive representation.

A technique in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli is known as

analytic introspection

heuristics

any approach to problem solving that employs a practical method even though it is not perfect but is sufficient for reaching an immediate goal Ex: what is a cheerleader? you may not know much about them but you know enough to classify one as a cheerleader

Your text's discussion of false memories leads to the conclusion that false memories

arise from the same constructive processes that produce true memories.

A task with the instructions "Read the following words while repeating 'the, the, the' out loud, look away, and then write down the words you remember" would most likely be studying

articulatory suppression.

Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus

facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.

Your text's discussion of eyewitness testimony illustrates that this type of memory is frequently influenced by all of the following EXCEPT

failing to elaboratively rehearse these kinds of events due to fear.

Neurons that respond to specific qualities of objects, such as orientation, movement, and length, are called

feature detectors.

Rosa is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Rosa decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _________________ , she will use a _________________ strategy.

gains; risk-aversion

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share

__________________are recurring structures within cognitive processes which establishes patterns of conceptual understanding. They are formed from our bodily interactions.

image schemas

Shepard and Metzler's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated

imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms.

availability heuristic

making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind