COM 263 Chapter 2

Maori-based code of conduct for ethnographic researchers:

A respect for people Presenting yourself face-to-face Look, listen, ... speak Share and host people, be generous Do not flaunt your knowledge

Functionalist Approach

A study of intercultural communication, also called the social science approach, based on the assumptions that (1) there is a describable, external reality, (2) human behaviors are predictable, and (3) culture is a variable that can be measured. This approach aims to identify and explain cultural variations in communication and to predict future communication.

emic

A term stemming from phonemic. The emic way of inquiry focuses on understanding communication patterns from inside a particular cultural community or context.

etic

A term stemming from phonetic. The etic inquiry searches for universal generalizations across cultures from a distance

ethnography

A discipline that examines the patterned interactions and significant symbols of specific cultural groups to identify the cultural norms that guide their behaviors, usually based on field studies.

paradigm

A framework that serves as the worldview of researchers. Different paradigms assume different interpretations of reality, human behavior, culture, and communication.

critical approach

A metatheoretical approach that includes many assumptions of the interpretive approach but that focuses more on macrocontexts, such as the political and social structures that influence communication.

dialectic (1)

A method of logic based on the principle that an idea generates its opposite, leading to a reconciliation of the opposites; (2) the complex and paradoxical relationship between two opposite qualities or entities, each of which may also be referred to as a dialectic.

participant observation

A research method where investigators interact extensively with the cultural group being studied.

rhetorical approach

A research method, dating back to ancient Greece, in which scholars try to interpret the meanings or persuasion used in texts or oral discourses in the contexts in which they occur.A research method, dating back to ancient Greece, in which scholars try to interpret the meanings or persuasion used in texts or oral discourses in the contexts in which they occur.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

The assumption that language shapes our ideas and guides our view of social reality. This hypothesis was proposed by Edward Sapir, a linguist, and his student, Benjamin Whorf, and represents the relativist view of language and perception.

five propositions on human communication

We remind ourselves of the interdependence and interrelatedness of the universe. We reduce our selfishness and egocentrism. We feel the joy and suffering of all beings. We receive and return our debts to all beings. We moralize and harmonize the universe.

t or f The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that cultures vary in the meanings they assign to nonverbal behaviors.

false

t or f The assumption that language shapes our ideas and guides our view of social reality is called the Gudykunst hypothesis.

false

t or f The dialectical perspective to intercultural communication research and practice suggests that people are either privileged or disadvantaged depending on the culture to which they belong.

false

t or f The goal of researchers who study human behavior from the interpretive perspective is to explain and predict human behavior.

false

t or f The social science, interpretive, and critical perspectives to studying intercultural communication are contradictory and cannot be connected in ways that help us better understand social reality.

false

t or f The strength of the interpretive approach to studying intercultural communication is that it provides an in-depth understanding of communication patterns in particular cultural communities.

false

t or false Experiences of the U.S. government and business personnel working overseas after World War II suggest that language training alone is a sufficient form of preparation for working in foreign countries.

false

One limitation of the social science approach to studying intercultural communication is:

the possibility that the methods used in this approach are not culturally sensitive.

Which of the following is true of the development of the intercultural communication area of study?

It originated with scholars looking for practical answers to help overseas workers.

Proxemics

The study of how people use personal space.

T or F Researchers are able to prevent their own cultural biases from affecting their intercultural research.

false

The process of perpetuating cultural patterns is called:

social reproduction

textual analysis

textual analysis Examination of cultural texts such as media—television, movies, journalistic essays, and so on.

T or F Early intercultural communication research was dictated by the needs of middle-class U.S. professionals conducting business overseas.

true

five cultural themes shared by peoples of African descent:

A common origin and experience of struggle An element of resistance to European legal procedures, medical practices, and political processes Traditional values of humaneness and harmony with nature A fundamentally African way of knowing and interpreting the world An orientation toward communalism

Variable

A concept that varies by existing in different types or different amounts and that can be operationalized and measured.

Privilege-Disadvantage Dialectic

A dialectical perspective recognizes that people may be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged, or privileged in some contexts and disadvantaged in others. For example, many tourists are in the position of economic privilege because they can afford to travel, but in their travels, they also may be disadvantaged if they do not speak the local language. We can also be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged because of gender, age, race, socioeconomic status, and other identities. One of our Asian American colleagues relates how he is simultaneously privileged because he is educated, middle class, and male and disadvantaged because he experiences subtle and overt mistreatment based on his race and accentA dialectical perspective recognizes that people may be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged, or privileged in some contexts and disadvantaged in others. For example, many tourists are in the position of economic privilege because they can afford to travel, but in their travels, they also may be disadvantaged if they do not speak the local language. We can also be simultaneously privileged and disadvantaged because of gender, age, race, socioeconomic status, and other identities. One of our Asian American colleagues relates how he is simultaneously privileged because he is educated, middle class, and male and disadvantaged because he experiences subtle and overt mistreatment based on his race and accent

interpretive approach

An approach to intercultural communication that aims to understand and describe human behavior within specific cultural groups based on the assumptions that (1) human experience is subjective, (2) human behavior is creative rather than determined or easily predicted, and (3) culture is created and maintained through communication

dialectical approach

An approach to intercultural communication that integrates three approaches-functionalist (or social science), interpretive, and critical-in understanding culture and communication. It recognizes and accepts that the three approaches are interconnected and sometimes contradictory.

hybrid identity

An identity that is consciously a mixture of different cultural identities and cultural traditions.

postcolonialism

An intellectual, political, and cultural movement that calls for the independence of colonialized states and also liberation from colonialist ways of thinking.

Afrocentricity

An orientation toward African or African American cultural standards, including beliefs and values, as the criteria for interpreting behaviors and attitudes

History/Past-Present/Future Dialectic

Another dialectic emphasizes the need to focus simultaneously on the past and the present in understanding intercultural communication. On the one hand, we need to be aware of contemporary forces and realities that shape interactions of people from different cultural groups. On the other hand, we need to realize that history has a significant impact on contemporary events. One of our students described how this dialectic was illustrated in a televised panel discussion on race relations:

interdisplinary

Integrating knowledge from different disciplines in conducting research and constructing theory.

anxiety uncertainty management theory

The view that the reduction of anxiety and uncertainty plays an important role in successful intercultural communication, particularly when experiencing new cultures.

Cultural-Individual Dialectic

Intercultural communication is both cultural and individual, or idiosyncratic. That communication is cultural means we share communication patterns with members of the groups to which we belong. For example, Sandra, a fifth-generation Italian American, tends to be expressive, like other members of her family. However, some of her communication patterns—such as the way she gestures when she talks—are completely idiosyncratic (i.e., particular to her and no one else). Consider another example, that of Amelia, who tends to be relationally oriented. Although her role as a woman and the relationships she cultivates in that role are important, being a woman does not completely define her behaviors. In this book, we often describe communication patterns that seem to be related to membership in particular cultural groups. However, it is important to remember that communication for all of us is both cultural and individual. We need to keep this dialectic in mind as we try to understand and develop relationships across cultural differences.

Differences-Similarities Dialectic

Intercultural communication is characterized by both similarities and differences, in that people are simultaneously similar to and different from each other. In this book, we identify and describe real and important differences between groups of people—differences in values, language, nonverbal behavior, conflict resolution, and so on. For example, Japanese and U.S. Americans communicate differently, just as do men and women. However, there also are many similarities in human experiences and ways of communicating. Emphasizing only differences can lead to stereotyping and prejudice (e.g., that women are emotional or that men are rational); emphasizing only similarities

face negotiation theory

The view that cultural groups vary in preferences for conflict styles and face-saving strategies.

processual

Refers to how interaction happens rather than to the outcome.

qualitative methods

Research methods that attempt to capture people's own meanings for their everyday behavior in specific contexts. These methods use participant observation and field studies.

quantitative methods

Research that use numerical indicators to capture and ascertain the relationships among variables. These methods use survey and observation.

conversational constraints theory

The view that cultural groups vary in their fundamental concerns regarding how conversational messages should be constructed.

distance zones

The area, defined by physical space, within which people interact, according to Edward Hall's theory of proxemics. The four distance zones for individuals are intimate, personal, social, and public.

communication accommodation theory

The view that individuals adjust their verbal communication to facilitate understanding.

Summary

The field of intercultural communication in the United States began with the establishment of the FSI in 1946. This new field was interdisciplinary and pragmatic. It emphasized nonverbal communication in international contexts. The perceptions and worldviews of scholars have an impact on the study of intercultural communication and have led to three contemporary approaches: the social science, interpretive, and critical approaches. This textbook advocates a dialectical approach that combines these three approaches. A dialectical approach emphasizes a processual, relational, and holistic view of intercultural communication, and it requires a balance of contradictory views. Intercultural communication is both cultural and individual, personal and contextual, characterized by differences and similarities, static and dynamic, oriented to both the present and the past, and characterized by both privilege and disadvantage.

translation equivalence

The linguistic sameness that is gained after translating and back-translating research materials several times using different translators

macrocontexts

The political, social, and historical situations, backgrounds, and environments that influence communication.

perception

The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret external and internal stimuli to create their view of the world.

social reproduction

The process of perpetuating cultural patterns

conceptual equivalence

The similarity of linguistic terms and meanings across cultures

individualistic

The tendency to emphasize individual identities, beliefs, needs, goals, and views rather than those of the group.

collectivistic

The tendency to focus on the goals, needs, and views of the ingroup rather than individuals' own goals, needs, and views

diversity training

The training meant to facilitate intercultural communication among various gender, ethnic, and racial groups in the United States.

diffusion of innovations theory

The view that communication and relationships play important roles in how new ideas are adopted (or not) by individuals and groups.

Personal-Contextual Dialectic

This dialectic involves the role of context in intercultural relationships and focuses simultaneously on the person and the context. Although we communicate as individuals on a personal level, the context of this communication is important as well. In some contexts, we enact specific social roles that give meaning to our messages. For example, when Tom was teaching at a Belgian university, he often spoke from the social role of professor. But this role did not correspond exactly to the same role in the United States because Belgian students accord their professors far more respect and distance than do U.S. students. In Belgium, this social role was more important than his communication with the students. In contrast, his communication with students in the United States is more informal.

Static-Dynamic Dialectic

This dialectic suggests that intercultural communication tends to be at once static and dynamic. Some cultural and communication patterns remain relatively constant, whereas other aspects of cultures (or personal traits of individuals) shift over time—that is, they are dynamic. For example, as we learned in Chapter 1, anti-immigrant sentiment traditionally has been a cultural constant in the United States, although the groups and conditions of discrimination have changed. Thus, the antagonism against Irish and Italian immigrants that existed at the turn of the 20th century has largely disappeared but may linger in the minds of some people. To understand interethnic communication in the United States today, we must recognize both the static and dynamic aspects of these relations.

cross-cultural training

Training people to become familiar with other cultural norms and to improve their interactions with people of different domestic and international cultures.

t or f Hall suggests that different cultural groups have different rules for personal space and that these affect intercultural communication.

True

worldview

Underlying assumptions about the nature of reality and human behavior.

_____ are underlying assumptions about the nature of reality and human behavior.

Worldviews

Researchers who use the _____ approach to studying intercultural communication are interested not only in understanding human behavior but also in changing the lives of everyday communicators.

critical

social science approach (also called the functionalist approach)

popular in the 1980s, is based on research in psychology and sociology. This approach assumes a describable external reality. It also assumes that human behavior is predictable and that the researcher's goal is to describe and predict behavior. Researchers who take this approach often use quantitative methods, gathering data by administering questionnaires or observing subjects firsthand.

The goal of the _____ approach to studying intercultural communication is to predict specifically how culture influences communication.

social science

The privilege/disadvantage dialectic recognizes that:

some people are disadvantaged in some contexts and privileged in other contexts.

Which dialectic of intercultural communication addresses the fact that some of our cultural patterns are constant and some are shifting?

static; dynamic dialectic

intercultural competence

the ability to behave effectively and appropriately in interacting across cultures

t or f Interdisciplinary means integrating knowledge from different areas of study in conducting research and constructing theory.

true

t or f One contribution of anthropologists to the study of intercultural communication is an understanding of the role of culture in our lives.

true

t or f The ability to behave effectively and appropriately when interacting across cultures is called intercultural competence.

true