COM 3073 Midterm

How to develop a Survey?

*Develop the research design *Evaluate existing questionnaires/surveys -Recommended over creating your own -Has undergone extensive testing and revision -Minor changes are okay; substantial changes will require that you pretest or pilot test the questionnaire

Social Desirability Response

The participant will respnds with answers he or she believes the interviewer will perceive as favorable.

What is a sample?

a subset of the population

Qq: Each of the following is true about discrete data EXCEPT?

a. data represents the presence or absence of some characteristic b. Can be known as nominal data C. Cannot be known as categorical------------ d. All the elements with the same charcteristic belong to one category

What is a population?

all units (people or things) possessing the attributes and characteristics of interest

What are significance levels and how does it relate to probability?

The researcher sets the significance level, or p, for each statistical test The degree of error the researcher finds acceptable in a statistical test An estimate of what would happen if the study were actually repeated many times Generally .05 is accepted level .05 significance level = 5 out of 100 findings that appear to be valid will be due to chance Also known as the alpha level or p If p> .05, the finding is nonsignificant If p is .05, the finding is significant or real

construct

Theoretical definition of a concept; not directly observable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 364). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

normal curve

Theoretical distribution of scores, or other numerical values, in which the majority of cases are distributed around the peak in the middle with progressively fewer cases as one moves away from the middle of the distribution; has a distinct bell shape and symmetry—one side of the curve is a mirror image of the other side; the mean, median, and mode for the distribution are at the same point; also referred to as the bell curve. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 368). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

What is a standard deviation and how does it relate to the normal curve?

Theoretical normal curve is divided into equal standards The more normal a distribution of scores, the more this theoretical property applies 68.26% of scores fall within +1 to -1 standards

sample

A subset, or portion, of a population; data are collected from a sample to make generalizations back to a population. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

concept

Abstract idea or way of thinking about something that helps us distinguish it from other elements; can be an object, event, relationship, or process. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 363). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Reliability

Achieved when researchers are consistent in their use of data collection procedures and when participants react similarly to them; other researchers using the same measure in another project with comparable participants would produce similar results; measurement is stable, trustworthy, or dependable; a reliable measure is one that is consistent or gives very similar results each time it is used. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 370). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Validity

Achieved when the measurement does what it is intended to do; related to truthfulness or accuracy in measurement. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 373). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Population

All units or the universe—people or things— possessing the attributes or characteristics in which the researcher is interested. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 369). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

What is a normal curve?

Also known as bell curve A theoretical distribution of scores Majority of cases distributed around the peak in the middle Progressively fewer cases moving away form the middle Symmetrical - one side mirrors the other Mean, median, and mode have the same value

What is measurement?

Associated with quantitative studies Numbers used as a tool for identifying and presenting information Links the conceptual to the empirical Necessary to conduct quantitative research

What is a skewed distribution?

Asymmetrical curve Positively skewed curve very few high scores Negatively skewed curve very few low scores

Nominal Data

Discrete data that describe the presence or absence of some characteristic or attribute; data that name a characteristic without any regard to the value of the characteristic; also referred to as categorical data. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 368). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

what are measurements levels in terms of data types?

Discrete or continuous

What is Non Probability Sampling?

Does not rely on random selection Weakens sample-to-population representativeness Used when other techniques will not result in an adequate or appropriate sample Used when researchers desire participants with special experiences or abilities

Variable

Element that is specifically identified in the research hypotheses or questions; must be able to be expressed as more than one value or in various categories. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 373). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Generalizability

Extent to which conclusions developed from data collected from a sample can be extended to the population; the extension of the findings to similar situations or to similar others. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 366). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

construct validity

Extent to which measuring device measures the core concept that was intended to be measured and not something else; researchers use a different, but theoretically related, measure of the same or a similar phenomenon to establish construct validity. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 364). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

semantic differential scale

Form of interval measurement; using a stimulus statement, participants are asked to locate the meaning they ascribe to the stimulus on a response scale anchored by two opposites, usually bipolar adjectives. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

purposive sampling

Form of nonprobability sampling; depends on the judgment of the researcher who handpicks the cases to be included in the sample; used when researcher wants to select cases that are typical of the population of interest and when sensitive topics are of research interest or when very specialized populations are sought. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 370). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Qq: The extent to which conclusions developed from data collected from a sample can be extended to the population is known as

Generalizability

null hypothesis

Implicit complementary statement to the research hypothesis that states that no relationship, except one due to chance, exists between the variables. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 368). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean Arithmetic mean or average Most sensitive to extreme scores Median Middle of all scores on one variable Mode Score or scores that appear most often

median

Measure of central tendency indicating the middle of all the scores on one variable; the point or score that divides a distribution of scores in half. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 367). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

mode

Measure of central tendency indicating the score that appears most often in a dataset. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 368). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Ratio Data

Measurement for which intervals between data points are equal; a true zero exists; if the score is zero, there is a complete absence of the variable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 370). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

mean

Most common measure of central tendency; commonly referred to as the average; computed by adding up all the scores on one variable and then dividing by the number of cases, or n, for that variable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 367). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

probability sampling

Most rigorous way for identifying whom to include as part of a sample; the probability, or chance, of any element being included in the sample is known and equal for everyone or every element in the sample: also referred to as random sampling. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 369). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

snowball sampling

Nonprobability sampling technique in which participants help the researcher identify other similar participants; used when the research topic is controversial or a specific population of participants is difficult to find. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

sample size

Number of people or elements from whom or on which data are collected. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Frequency

Number of times a particular value or category of a variable occurs. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 366). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

What are measurements principles?

Numbers measure value, intensity, degree, depth, length, width, distance Descriptive and evaluative device Numbers have no value until we provide meaning Includes everything the researcher does to arrive at a number Details the operationalization of the variable

descriptive statistics

Numbers that summarize essential and basic information about the dataset as a whole. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 365). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Qq: How a variable is observed and measured is known as?

Operationalization

Inductive

Reasoning process in which data are gathered and examined, hypotheses are formulated, and eventually theories are developed in response to what the data reveal; generally used with qualitative research methods.

Deductive

Reasoning process in which researcher begins with a theory and then gathers evidence, or data, to assess whether the theory is correct; generally used with quantitative research methods.

empirical

Refers to observations or experiences; empirical methodologies in communication are based on or are derived from experiences with observable phenomena.

theory

Related set of ideas that explains how or why something happens; presents a systematic view of the phenomenon; and specifies the relationships among the concepts with the objective of describing, explaining, or predicting the phenomenon.

Qq: The idea that our show size will stay the same no matter how many times we measure it, and will always be an accurate indicator of the size of our feet, is indicative of

Reliability

standard deviation

Representation of the variability or spread of the dataset; the amount the scores in a distribution deviate from the mean. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 372). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

social science research

Research conducted through the use of scientific and systematic methods; based on the assumption that research can uncover patterns in the lives of people.

Qualitative Methods

Research in which the researcher is the primary observer, or data collector.

quantitive methods

Research that relies on numerical measurement.

nondirectional hypothesis

Statement that a difference or relationship between variables will occur; does not specify the direction of the difference or the nature of the relationship. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 368). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Operationalization

Statement that denotes how the variable is observed and measured in a specific way; most variables can be operationalized in multiple ways. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 368). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

reserach

The discovery of answers to questions through the application of scientific and systematic procedures.

interval

The distance between any two adjacent, or contiguous, data points. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 367). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

pilot testing

Researcher's trial of a survey or questionnaire with a small group of participants who are similar to those individuals who constitute the population before data collection actually begins; also referred to as pretesting. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 369). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

social desirability response

Response for which there is the potential for participants to respond with answers they believe the interviewer will perceive as favorable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Comparison of types of Surveys

SELF ADMINISTERED FACE TO FACE SURVEY PHONE SURVEY ONLINE SURVEY MAIL SURVEY

simple random sampling

Sampling technique in which every person or unit—selected one at a time and independently—has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

convenience sampling

Sampling technique not based on random selection or probability; the researcher simply selects those who are convenient as respondents; no guarantee that all eligible units have an equal chance of being included in the sample; also referred to as opportunity sampling. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 364). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

non-probability sampling

Sampling technique that does not rely on any form of random selection. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 368). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

literature review

Section of the written research report that provides the framework of the research investigation; summarizes the literature the researcher sought and studied to design and develop the research study. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 367). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Qq: Interval scales that measure the degree of something anchored by tow bipolar opposites, such as ranking someone as 'Unfriendly' 1 2 3 4 5 'Friendly' are called __________ scales

Semantic differential

skewed distribution

Shape of a distribution of scores that is not normal; the curve is asymmetrical; the mean, median, and mode are not at the same point. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Qq: Sampling in which every person has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study is also known as

Simple Random Sampling

What is a recall cue?

to draw participants' attention to issue, topic, or timeframe

o What is the relationship between reliability and validity?

A measurement should be both valid and reliable Validity and reliability connected in fundamental ways Reliable measurements can be obtained without validity When validity is achieved, reliability is presumed

● Understand the two types of scales for interval measurement

-Identifies highest, next highest, and so on -Interval is the distance between any two adjecent data points. -Identifies exact difference between and among scores -Acknowledges zero -Allows meaningful comparisons -Likert-type scales EXAMPLES: temperature, or SAT scores

● How does generalizability work?

-Extent to which conclusions developed from data collected from sample can be extended to its population -Sample is representative to the degree that all units had same chance for being selected -Representative sampling eliminates selection bias -Representativeness can only be assured through random sampling

directional hypothesis

A precise statement indicating the nature and direction of the relationship or difference between the variables. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 365). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

What is probability sampling?

-The probability of any unit being included in the sample is known and equal -When probability for selection is equal, selection is random -Also known as random sampling -Sampling error will always occur

What is validity?

-accuracy -Extent to which it measures what you want it to measure and not something else

o Know the types of continuous level data

-Three types *Ordinal data *Interval data *Ratio data

questionnaire

A method of data collection, such as in a mail, phone, face-to-face, or online questionnaire; can be used by itself or with other data collection methods in many research designs. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 370). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

ordinal data

Data measured based on the rank order of concepts or variables; differences among ranks need not be equal. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 369). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

o Differentiate between discrete and continuous level data

Both representative of communication phenomena Each produces different kind of data How data are collected determines how they can be used in statistical analyses

What is Sampling Error?

Degree to which a sample differs from population characteristics on some measurement -As sample size increases and becomes a larger proportion of the population, sampling error is reduced -Also referred to as margin of error

external validity

Degree to which the findings of a research project can be extended to participants and settings beyond those studied. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 365). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

What is the difference between an open question and a closed question?

CLOSED: Respondents given a question or statement and given a set of responses to select from All responses must be known in advance Creates easily comparable responses Use a recall cue or stimulus statement to draw participants' attention to issue, topic, or timeframe OPEN: Respondents given a question or statement and given a set of responses to select from All responses must be known in advance Creates easily comparable responses Use a recall cue or stimulus statement to draw participants' attention to issue, topic, or timeframe

random

Characteristic of a sample in which probability for selection is equal; decreases bias. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 370). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

equivalent

Characteristic of nominal or categorical response set; responses must be equal to one another or of the same type. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 365). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

percentage

Comparison between the base number and a second number; represented by the symbol%. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 369). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Qq: When data are treated as if they are all collected at the same time, this is an example of the data being what?

Cross- sectional

continuous level data

Data for which values can differ in degree, amount, or frequency and for which these differences can be ordered on a continuum; also referred to as quantitative data. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 364). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

significance level

Level of error the researcher is willing to accept; established for each statistical test; symbolized as p or referred to as the alpha level; also referred to as probability level. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

What are some different kinds of sampling we talked about in class?

Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling

open question

Question for which respondents use their own words to formulate a response. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 368). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

closed question

Question form in which respondents are asked a question (or given a statement) and then given a set of responses to select from. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 363). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

research question

Question that asks what the tentative relationship among variables might be or asks about the state or nature of some communication phenomenon.

questions of value

Questions that ask for individuals' subjective evaluations on issues and phenomena, usually about the aesthetic or normative features of communication.

questions of relationships

Questions that examine if, how, and the degree to which phenomena are related.

Qq: A ___________ is a system for collecting information when it is only method of data collection; A ___________ can be used with other data collection methods in the lab or the field

Survey; questionnaire

What is a survey?

System for collecting comparable information across many people -Paper-and-pencil self-administered or self-reports -Face-to-face -Telephone -Mail or e-mail -Online

survey

System for collecting information to describe, compare, or explain knowledge, attitudes, and behavior; also known as questionnaire or poll. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 372). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Hypothesis

Tentative, educated guess or proposition about the relationship between two or more variables; often, hypotheses take the form of statements like "If x occurs, then y will follow," or "As x increases, so will y."

central tendency

Term applied to any of several measures that summarize a distribution of scores; mean, median, and mode are common measures of central tendency; this one number acts as a summary of all the scores on one variable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 363). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Qq: True or False- There are two kinds of hypothesis in quantitative research: directional and non directional

True

Likert-type scale

Type of interval scale measurement widely used in communication research; participants are given a statement and then asked to respond, indicating the degree to which they agree or disagree with the statement; a typical response set is "strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree." Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 367). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

self-reports

Type of survey, questionnaire, or poll in which respondents read the question and select a response by themselves without researcher interference. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 371). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Measurment

Use of numbers to represent a communication phenomenon; more broadly, a process that includes everything the researcher does to arrive at the numerical estimates, including the measuring device or instrument, how the device or instrument is used, the skill of the person using the device or instrument, and the attribute or characteristic being measured. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 367). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

independent variable

Variable manipulated by the researcher; presumably, this manipulation, or variation, is the cause of change in the dependent variable; also referred to as antecedent variable, experimental variable, treatment variable, and causal variable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 366). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Predictor/independent variable

Variable that causes change in the dependent, or criterion, variable; used in nonexperimental research designs because the researcher cannot directly control manipulation of the independent variable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 369). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

dependent variable

Variable that is influenced or changed by the independent variable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 365). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

Criterion varaible

Variable that is influenced or changed by the predictor variable. Keyton, Joann. Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding Answers (p. 364). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Kindle Edition.

What is reliability?

the consistency with which the same event is repeatedly measured. scores are consistent across repeated testing. Degree of consistency among similar items Reliability coefficient - 0.0 to 1.0 Closer to 1.00, the greater the degree of reliability Generally, above .70 is acceptable Internal reliability Items invoke same response Reliability between coders