COM 3402 CH11

Social Media

"digital technologies that allow people to connect, interact, produce and share content" (Lewis, 2010, p. 2) Considered distinct from traditional media because they are based on user-generated content (versus "institutional" or "organizational" content) the costs of creating and disseminating the content on social platforms are either free or relatively inexpensive Although the original focus of social media was on its ability to assist individuals with achieving their personal goals (Vorvoreanu, 2009), increasingly, people use social media to achieve professional goals This is particularly evident in the realm of public relations; PR scholars such as Avery et al. (2010) claim "virtually no organization can afford to neglect its social media presence" (pp. 198-199) A critical understanding of the role of social media in our lives requires us to understand the nature of mediated forms of communication

Interpersonal Phase

(Walther, 1996). Walther argued that qualities of traditional interpersonal communication emerge in CMC environments "when users even so much expect to have a long-term association" (p. 33). While it takes longer in mediated environments, the same amount of information, impressions, and values are exchanged. Indeed, CMC users adapt to the environment and develop linguistic strategies to assist with impression formation, for example, responding more or less frequently, using emoticons, and inserting abbreviations to signal tone ("JK" just kidding). Consequently, relationships developed over CMC can be just as close as those relationships established in face-to-face contexts

Assumptions of Spiral of Silence Theory

- society threatens deviant individuals with isolation; fear of isolation is pervasive - this fear of isolation causes individuals to try to assess the climate of opinion at all times - public behavior is affected by public opinion assessment

Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications

1. Active audience with specific wants and needs 2. Media compete with many sources of gratification 3. Audience members consciously choose media content 4. Audience members make value judgments about various media uses

Diffusion of Innovation Theory

A theory developed by E.M. Rogers to explain how a new idea or product gains acceptance and diffuses (or spreads) through a specific population or subset of an organization. Identifies the six stages through which a person, group, or organization progresses when adopting innovations such as new media (Rogers, 2003)

Social Information Processing Model

An information processing model that identifies the steps in perceiving and responding to social information. argues that, despite the "leanness" of online environments that lack many nonverbal cues, individuals adapt and use the tools available to create pseudo-rich interpersonal communication examines the ways digital or computer mediated communication (CMC) in interpersonal contexts Experimental research showed CMC participants perceived less rich interaction; however, field studies revealed that real users perceived some mediated interaction as equivalent to face-to-face encounters

Hyperpersonal Phase

Because CMC is largely asynchronous, senders have more time opportunity to control and manage their self-presentation Discussed in Chapter 4, we routinely engage in facework to display our desired self-image. In face-to-face encounters, we must monitor eye contact, posture, expressions, tone, and the depth of our exchanges, all in real time. With CMC, however, monitoring one's physical self is irrelevant; we convey ourselves in text format only, allowing us to present an "idealized self." We can compose and edit our sentences to be wittier; we can select which features of ourselves we want to share. Our age, ethnicity, gender, and race are unknown, unless we choose to reveal them through language. Consequently, the hyperpersonal nature of CMC encourages users to present a more manicured or filtered version of self, producing "interaction that is more desirable than we can often manage in [face-to-face]" encounters (Walther, 1996, p. 28) As additional forms of CMC emerged, attention to the hyperpersonal phase has also evolved into a model of its own. Like its predecessor, SIP, the hyperpersonal model assumes that communicators adapt to the medium, expressing socioemotional messages with whatever digital characteristics exist (Walther & Whitty, 2021). For example, with more primitive messaging, users combined the grammatical symbols of a colon, dash, and closed parenthesis to signal smiling:-). Or using a less-than symbol and the number "3" to convey "love" <3. We "know" that typing in ALL CAPS means you're shouting, and so on. With today's graphic emojis, memes, and GIFs, we have even more options for expressing a vast range of emotions, humor, wit, and sarcasm The hyperpersonal model extends SIP by focusing on ways in which advances in communication technology influence previously unacquainted senders and receivers, as well as experiences of channels and feedback (Walther & Whitty, 2021). With present-day new media, the hyperpersonal model suggests that senders not only engage in selective self-presentation, senders also strategically exaggerate this digital self-image. For example, we may use filters, avatars, and color-enhanced selfies to control and present an embellished self. Receivers also engage in exaggeration. Walther and Whitty argued that when hyperpersonal receivers assume an unknown sender is more similar to themselves, they put more trust in the sender. For example, we look at "likes," product ratings, and user reviews assuming that those making the evaluations are like us, without any real knowledge of the sender, or their tastes, values, or experiences. Thus, receivers distort assumed similarity with senders. With regard to channel, the hyperpersonal model emphasizes the technological and temporal qualities of a medium as relevant to crafting and cultivating an edited self-image. Interpersonal media forms, such as texting, emailing, and direct messaging, afford control to the message creator. Consider even the notion of "scheduled" texts, posts, or emails, where the sender can set up a future time for the message to be sent and time-stamped. Creating a text now but setting it to be sent at a future point in time exaggerates the message's temporal quality. The receiver doesn't know that you crafted the response almost immediately upon receipt, but delayed sending it. This channel technology can make it seem as though an employee is working late at night or early in the morning, based on a message's time stamp. Similarly, a text exchange that includes intentionally delayed messages may convey a number of different meanings—ranging from indifference (the illusion of being "too busy" to respond right away) to thoughtful (the illusion that your response is based on "careful consideration" rather than a knee-jerk response). Finally, feedback in today's hyperpersonal model is primarily one of scale (Walther & Whitty, 2021). Early CMC technology and research focused on dyads and small groups. However, the explosion of masspersonal has created large audiences for interpersonal messages. Users can "congratulate or condemn" virtual strangers via social media platforms. We can "like," "care," "follow," and "share" content, thereby acknowledging the message and reacting. Feedback can be overly positive or overly negative Beyond changes in sender, receiver, channel, and feedback, the hyperpersonal model addresses the fact that relationships formed over digital media may very well move from virtual to physical environments, or become "mixed-mode relationships" (Walther & Parks, 2002; Walther & Whitty, 2021). For example, online dating sites are meant to provide a pathway to real-world romance. Social media for professional networking may lead to in-person networking or interviews. Online enthusiast or hobby forums often have meet-up conferences. Yet how well does our "actual self" align with the idealized image we have created online? As Walther and Parks (2002) offered, "the connection between who we are and who we claim to be on the Internet is by no means obvious" (p. 551)

Types of Media Gratifications

Entertainment Information Personal Identity Personal relationships and social interaction

Five Assumptions of SIPModel

First, and noted in other interpersonal theories (e.g., communication accommodation theory; expectancy violations theory, politeness theory, uncertainty reduction theory), humans are social creatures that seek connection. Second, we use a series of verbal and nonverbal exchanges to form interpersonal impressions of others. Third, the possibility of moving from an impersonal contact to a relational one depends on the impressions formed. Certainly, if you formed a negative impression of Angela based on a series of crisp exchanges, you're probably inclined to keep things impersonal rather than seek closeness. Conversely, if your exchanges with Angela led to a positive impression, you will be more motivated to increase relational messages. Presuming a positive impression and the motivation to increase relational communication, the fourth assumption characterizes relational messages as verbal or nonverbal, linguistic or text-based. In other words, relational messages are not limited only to verbally spoken or physically observed nonverbal exchanges. Pointedly, we can effectively use text forms to substitute for face-to-face, sensory-based conversations. The fifth and final assumption is temporal. That is, the processes of developing mutual understanding and relational communication take longer when using text forms and CMC. Together, these assumptions form six propositions that explain how "individuals use computer-mediated communication to develop interpersonal impressions and to advance relational communication over time online" (Walther, 2015, p. 1).

Social Information Processing Theory

Identifies three phases of computer mediated communication, which range from impersonal, to interpersonal, to hyperpersonal, with associated issues of impression management

Three phases of Mediated Communication

Impersonal, Interpersonal, Hyperpersonal

Channel Expansion Theory

Individuals select communication channels based on channel characteristics, individual experiences, and social influence While technology may be more efficient, is it really okay to conduct layoffs via Zoom call? Or announce an employee's termination via Twitter?

Spirals of Silence

Individuals who believe they hold a minority point of view will refrain from expressing that point of view publicly as a way to understand how media and social media influence the perception of dominant ideas and the expression of public opinion

Ability to personalize the message

Less rich media are more generalized to people as a whole for example spam mail

Entertainment: Gratification

Listening to the Coffee House channel on Spotify to help you concentrate Watching Psycho to experience a thrill Scrolling through TikTok videos because you're bored

Personal relationships and social interaction: Gratification

Listening to the Sports Radio Network on your drive to work so you can talk about it with your coworkers Using Discord to play games with your friends

Four Categories of Affordances in Digital Media: MAIN Model

Modality Agency Interactivity Navigability

Personal identity: Gratification

Reading Vogue or Esquire to see the latest in high fashion Putting together a Pinterest board to share your passions

Quasi Statistical Sense

Second, Noelle-Neumann (1974) proposed that individuals routinely monitor the opinion climate on controversial topics, social issues, and political views. She later termed this personal assessment of the public's prevailing That is, while we don't use scientific methods to empirically determine the majority opinion, individuals have a sense or strong awareness of how our own views align with what is perceived to be socially acceptable. This quasi-statistical sense is particularly active in times of high uncertainty or instability. Noelle-Neumann argued that we use our interpersonal networks and mass media to gauge public views. Extending her work into the new media of the 21st century, social media also includes means by which we can ascertain the larger opinion climate (Stoycheff, 2016)

Information: Gratification

Seeking advice about practical matters, such as how to cook hard-boiled eggs or roast a turkey Scanning a weather app so you know what to wear

Extension

Specifically, channel expansion theory was developed in response to inconsistencies in its predecessor, media richness theory (MRT) MRT recognizes that as new communication technologies or channels develop, the decision about the best way to send a message becomes more complex. Communicators should consider a message's complexity first, then select an appropriate channel based on that medium's richness. Channel expansion theory (Carlson & Zmud, 1999) builds on this premise by adding the concepts of individual experience and social influence when new concepts or ideas are added to a theory

Four Characteristics of richness

Speed of Feedback The ability to personalize the message The availability of multiple nonverbal cues Language variety

Social Presence Theory

Suggests that media vary based on engagement, or how closely media resemble the "presence" or involvement of face-to-face encounters (Short et al., 1976). Also termed "cues-filtered-out" theory theory that suggests face-to-face communication is generally high in social presence, and that media vary in the amount of social presence they convey

Media Richness

The degree to which a communication channels vary in their information

Availability of multiple nonverbal cues

The more cues available allows the receiver of the message to gather understanding or the intent of the message

CASE STUDY 11 SILENCING REFUGE

The opioid epidemic has ravaged communities across the United States, and communities are clamoring for help. Philadelphia is no exception, with residents, politicians, and health professionals all exploring ways to relieve the devastation. However, when an organization came before Philadelphia's City Council announcing its desire to establish the nation's first "safe-injection site," controversy quickly ensued. The nonprofit group, Refuge, sought to open a medically supervised facility for opioid addicts and was looking for a suitable location within the city. Already operating in Canada, Australia, and several European countries, "safe consumption" organizations aim to curb drug use and associated crime by allowing addicts to use or inject under the supervision of medical professionals. By moving addicts off of the streets and into hygienic conditions, these safe site organizations reduce overdoses and increase access to medical care. While such facilities aim to "reduce harm," the effectiveness for reducing overall drug use remains unclear, however. Refuge contended that legally operating a safe site facility would dramatically improve the quality of life in portions of the city that had large numbers of addicts, as well as the associated homelessness, crime, and drug-related diseases. But a number of council members and residents of the neighborhood where Refuge's safe site was being proposed were outraged. Newspaper headlines, broadcasts, yard signs, tweets, and posts all had something to say about the proposed facility. At first, brief news stories emphasized the site would bring relief to parts of the city most affected—with fewer users on the streets, fewer overdoses, and increased health services with medical staff better positioned to recommend addiction treatment. Residents like 45-year-old Gianna Johnson were thrilled; Gianna's cousin had died from an overdose, leaving behind two young children. She knew firsthand how addiction destroys families. In Gianna's mind, anything that could help save lives would be worth it. She often spoke to home-and-school parent groups, community organizations, and even church congregations to raise awareness about opioid addiction and to dispel myths that addiction is a personal weakness. These in-person events allowed audience members to ask questions and even share their own stories. Gianna also shared her support of Refuge's safe injection site plan, and explained how such a facility would have saved her cousin. When Refuge announced its location for the safe site, however, a number of business owners and residents were furious. Kendra Winters, 37, was one such resident. Worried about her own children being exposed to illicit drugs, along with the potential for increased crime, and declining home values, Kendra organized a political action group called Philly Parents Against Injections in Neighborhoods (PhillyPAIN). Kendra made use of all of her network connections to get people involved with the group; she not only posted on her own social media pages, but she also posted information about the proposed injection site on pages of local businesses, local schools, and other local nonprofit groups. She created a website and posted information such as newspaper articles about the safe site proposal along with contact information for the politicians who were supporting the initiative. The website also featured an interactive "Comments" section where registered users could post information and organize meetings. She started following the Twitter accounts of local council members, tweeting responses to them with the hashtag # PhillyPAIN. As the action group's membership grew, PhillyPAIN began tweeting about potential protests and rallies around the city, including the historical tourist attractions like Independence Hall and the National Constitution Center. The aim was to attract as much media attention as possible, thereby creating widespread negative publicity for Refuge's safe site proposal. PhillyPAIN's social media outreach was strong, but the group's efforts exploded after Wes Turnbull direct messaged Kendra with an idea. A doctoral student at nearby Franklin University, Wes studied political strategy and new media technologies. While personally ambivalent about Refuge's safe site plan, Wes's research focused on technology use among grassroot groups. He had seen the vast array of PhillyPAIN's media coverage and thought Kendra's tech-savvy group would benefit from a new application called Loke. Before responding, Kendra did a quick search on Franklin University's website and found several citations for Wes's work. Convinced he was authentic, the two exchanged a series of emails, Wes explained Loke provided real-time navigation information to users through their smartphones. He also emailed her examples of other grassroots groups that were trying the app. For #PhillyPAIN, he could help adjust the app to allow network members to see current #PhillyPAIN activities near the user's current location, as well as other members' current locations. Kendra quickly took up Wes's help and convinced a core group of the activists to start using it to coordinate their efforts. Soon more than half of the #PhillyPAIN constituents had downloaded the app. They also learned to use the app to edit and share rally photos and videos. The coordinated effort worked. Philadelphia newspapers, news radio stations, and news outlets reported on every protest, which they could now easily find because of the information available on Loke. TV news stations used the photos and videos shared on Loke and even began covering the protests live. The Philadelphia Times ran a series of news features. Bloggers wrote about it. Social media users posted, shared, and organized "not-in-my-neighborhood" rallies. A local talk radio show held several programs focusing on residents' opinions of the state's proposal. The hashtag began trending daily, and soon, national media outlets picked up the #PhillyPAIN message. People in other cities nationwide began to fear that if a safe site was established in Philadelphia, their own neighborhood could be next. Hashtags like #NashvillePAIN, #PhoenixPAIN, and #OmahaPAIN surfaced. In addition to her local involvement, Kendra spent significant amounts of time messaging and emailing activists in these other locations. She shared tips for gaining media coverage, templates for letters to politicians, and information on how their group used Loke. Meanwhile Gianna Johnson felt increasingly discouraged. Several of her neighbors had PhillyPAIN signs posted in their yard or on bumper stickers. Gianna had been publicly criticized on social media after a newspaper article quoted her as speaking in favor of Refuge at a recent school board meeting. And last month's city council meeting was flooded with public comments against Refuge, with critics yelling that "importing addicts" from other neighborhoods would make their children vulnerable and destroy the community. Several argued that their community "shouldn't be ruined just to prevent 'druggies' from overdosing." The comments on social media were even worse with posts about addicts being shameful and "too lazy to get real treatment." Despite her belief and family's firsthand experience with opioid addiction, Gianna no longer felt comfortable speaking up in these public forums. Instead, she sought confirmation in anonymous support groups such as Nar-Anon, where she could share her story without judgment. Meanwhile, as the tide had clearly turned, Refuge abandoned their safe site plan altogether.

Uses and Gratifications 2.0

Users select particular media to both meet their own needs and because of the affordances the media provide (modality, agency, interactivity, and navigability)

Social Identity-Deindividuation Theory (SIDE)

When our CMC partner is unfamiliar and in the absence of nonverbal signals, receivers overestimate the cues they do receive. Relying on stereotypes, we inflate the importance of, or "overattribute," message characteristics, such as typos, all caps, and punctuation (Lea & Spears, 1992)

Fear of Isolation

a negative experience of concern or worry that can influence us as individuals to avoid voicing or holding unpopular opinions

Language Variety

any form of language characterized by systematic features

Active audience with specific wants and needs

audience members actively choose and use media to fulfill certain needs. Likewise, media technologies represent numerous options available for a person to fulfill social or psychological needs, goals, and values. Indeed, the increase in communication technologies available to people in the 21st century only boosts the viability of choice (Ruggiero, 2000; Sundar & Limperos, 2013). In this way, media use is active and goal-driven based on individuals' needs

Warranting

behaviors seek to determine congruence between one's online presentation and that person's real-life attributes CMC users who are savvy to the fact that others can and do exaggerate their online persona will look for other cues to determine the veracity of their partner's claims if online partners expect to meet face-to-face eventually, they will often provide each other with additional warranting information to "backup" self-presentation claims

Masspersonal Media

blend aspects of interpersonal media with mass communication to provide individuals with direct and large audience interaction (Choi & Toma, 2017; O'Sullivan, 2005).

Uses and Gratification Approach

broadly emphasizes active audiences and focuses on receivers' motivations for using various media forms

CMC

computer mediated communication

Media Synchronicity Theory

different channels of communication support different levels of synchronicity Proposes that communication effectiveness occurs when the communication task (either convergence or conveyance) aligns with a medium's synchronicity (Dennis et al., 2008). Asynchronous media are better suited for tasks requiring conveyance, or the creation of shared meaning. Synchronous media are more effective for tasks that emphasize convergence or collaboration based on preexisting understanding.

Pluralistic Ignorance

distortions can exist in our perception of the dominant view such that we perceive public opinion to be farther from or closer to our own opinion than it actually is

Index of Channel Experience

four categories of media experience that shape our perceptions of a medium's richness: the media channel, the message topic, the organizational context, and one's communication partner (1) media channel, (2) message topic, (3) organizational context, (4) one's communication partner(s) In other words, our view of a medium's richness develops as our familiarity with each of these factors increases, above and beyond the objective characteristics of rich media as laid out by MRT

mediated communication channels

how mediated channels become popular as well as how and why we use them

Interpersonal Media

include channels that provide individuals with direct and one-to-one interaction, such as texting or phone and video calls (Choi & Toma, 2014; Choi & Toma, 2017)

Media Affordances

include users' perceptions of a given technology's "action possibilities" (Sundar, 2008). For example, what qualities of a medium do you view as helpful in achieving a particular goal or gratification? carrying capacity, message durability, message distribution speed, source control over message casting help to extend UG to digital media use

Mediated Communication

includes any message in which there is a device, third party, or electronic mechanism that facilitates communication between the sender and receiver can be further divided into interpersonal and masspersonal media

Social Influence

includes one's perception of how influential others—such as important peers and supervisors—refer to and/or use a medium (Schmitz & Fulk, 1991) If Keith's manager uses email to provide team members with updates and reminders, Keith will likely view texting as a richer medium than voicemail, even though voicemail's characteristics include more nonverbal cues A number of studies have found support for the addition of experiences and social influence as relevant in assessing channel richness, particularly that of email (e.g., Anders et al., 2020; Armengol et al., 2017; D'Urso & Rains, 2008)

Agency

includes ways in which a medium can appeal to different senses (e.g., visual, auditory)

Modality

includes ways in which a medium can appeal to different senses (e.g., visual, auditory)

Media compete with many sources of gratification

mass communication (see Chapter 11) doesn't just happen to you; nor do the mass media do anything to you. There is no magic spell cast by media owners to coax you into viewing their programming. Instead, UG maintains a person must identify a need and make a media choice (Katz et al., 1973). Individuals choose to watch, read, or listen to mass media sources. While Katz et al. didn't have the plethora of interactive social media that we do today, the assumptions still holds. Individuals choose to blog, tweet, post, share, or create a Pinterest board. In this regard, the term "media effects" is misleading. UG does not support a simple "straight-line effect" whereby a given medium causes people to think or behave differently. Rather, the focus is on how users consume media. Termed "users" (rather than audience members), individuals select a medium and then allow themselves to be swayed, changed, and influenced—or not. You choose to view a YouTube video and watch; YouTube doesn't turn itself on and force you to watch

Speed of Feedback

meaning synchronous or asynchronous capacities

Isolation Pressure

people will exclude or ridicule individuals who don't seem aligned with social norms or public opinion. Because we fear this exclusion, we avoid presenting ourselves in ways that are contrary to the majority

Sources of Public Opinion

personal background, mass media, public officials, interest groups

Interactivity

presumes that users are simultaneously sources and receivers of content and can adapt or make changes to the content in real time (Sundar & Limperos, 2013)

Ambiguity

refers to task complexity or the possibility of multiple interpretations If the goal of communication is shared understanding (as Daft and Lengel assumed), then ambiguous messages run a greater risk of being misunderstood the more ambiguous the message, the richer the medium should be used to communicate this message (Daft & Lengel, 1984, 1986)

Cumulation

refers to the fact that news media repeat views and stories across and between outlets as well as over time. What you see, read, and hear regarding political and social issues is likely to mirror what some in another city, state, or region sees, reads, and hears. Sinclair Broadcast Group, a media conglomerate that owns more than 180 local TV stations across the United States, had dozens of anchors on it stations read nearly identical news scripts, cautioning viewers to beware of "fake news" and biased content running on other stations, outlets, and social media (Folkenflik, 2018)

Ubiquity

refers to the pervasiveness of mass media; it is everywhere. With smart devices, media can quite literally be carried in your pocket or worn on your wrist

Gratification

satisfaction, of your individual needs

media outlets compete with other available

satisfying personal needs (Katz et al., 1973). Stated differently, we have many ways to fulfill our needs. Feeling frazzled after a hectic day at work? You may fulfill your need (to relax and unwind) by choosing to watch a sitcom (mass media) or to scroll through Instagram (social media) or to videochat with a friend (interpersonal media). Alternatively, you may meet your needs by taking a run in the park, practicing yoga, or soaking in a warm bath with a glass of wine. Thus, the mediated options represent only a handful of alternatives available to you. Next, we present reasons individuals use the media and how media exposure can gratify various social and psychological needs

Consonance

signifies congruence or similarity between journalists themselves; these shared values and mutual sources lead to reciprocal influence

Rich Media

sophisticated, interactive Web advertising, usually employing sound and video

Navigability

speaks to the ease with which users can "move through" or navigate a medium. Sundar also argued that a medium's features influence the nature of content. That is, each medium differs in qualities that either enable or inhibit messages, which in turn, affects the content. For example, an interactive website with linked content creates a nonlinear way to process information; you can click on a hyperlink that takes you out of, and then back to, the original page—or not

Impersonal Phase

task-oriented, wherein individuals simply use CMC to "get the job done." Early study of CMC focused on email and other text-based media. Noted in our previous discussion of MRT and channel expansion theories, text-based media averts much of the nonverbal richness inherent in face-to-face and even auditory-based communication (e.g., telephone, voicemail). Cues such as tone, pauses, posture, and facial expression are reduced. Still, we can use CMC effectively to organize, plan, and make decisions, particularly in group settings. Using text-based CMC to complete tasks can certainly be more efficient; for example, a series of email exchanges may eliminate the need to host an in-person meeting. Because impersonal communication lacks socioemotional aspects of interaction, performances often expected in face-to-face situations—such as navigating status differences, managing conflict, and conformity pressure—are also minimized. The impersonal phase typically occurs only when participants don't anticipate future interaction (i.e., uncertainty reduction theory) or when the communication goal is purely instrumental and socioemotional features would hinder the process

Directions

the extent to which the link is reciprocal between network members

Criticism of UG (uses and gratification)

the original framework doesn't predict specific media use; it only describes individuals' motivations for engaging with fairly traditional media (e.g., radio, TV, film, books, and periodicals) With the rise in new media, however, Ruggiero (2000) argued that "as new technologies present people with more and more media choices, motivation and satisfaction become even more crucial components of audience analysis" (p. 14)

Public Opinion

the sum of beliefs about controversial issues that one feels comfortable expressing publicly, without fear of social ostracism or isolation. In other words, it's a measure of comfort as to whether you will share your views on contentious or arguable issues; quite literally, are you comfortable publicizing your opinion? the distribution of the population's beliefs about politics and policy issues

Media Richness Theory

theory that describes the potential information-carrying capacity of a communication medium MRT richness theory organizes media from rich to lean based on each channel's characteristics Focuses on message ambiguity MRT would recommend a synchronous townhall meeting or even small group meetings as the best channel to explain the decision and to answer questions; an email blast would not be an appropriate channel choice. On the other hand, using email might be perfectly appropriate for announcing the meeting itself, as the time and date of a meeting is not particularly ambiguous MRT has received empirical support when comparing traditional mediated communication options used in organizations—namely in-person, phone, letters, and memos (e.g., Russ et al., 1990) However, the theory receives inconsistent support when studies take into account the myriad of digital and new media now commonplace in organizations (Carlson & Zmud, 1999; Dennis et al., 1999)

Selective Exposure

therefore were more likely to encounter different ideologies. Their offline peers engaged in greater selective exposure, making them less likely to encounter different ideologies. While not examining the spiral of silence directly, the results suggest that individuals use social media to inform their quasi-statistical sense and self-censor on sites that present counter ideologies

Three Characteristics that render media organizations uniquely poised to influence public opinion

ubiquity cumulation consonance

Four Broad Classes of Motivation

use interpersonal, masspersonal, or mass media for entertainment purposes media outlets and content provide information (McQuail, 1987) people use media to reflect, reinforce, or contrast their personal identity (McQuail, 1987) A fourth and final reason is that people turn to various media for personal relationships and social interaction (McQuail, 1987) Entertainment includes some specific subtypes, for example, to: relax, escape, feel excitement or emotional catharsis, pass time, or enjoy an artistic pleasure

Media

we often mean the "mass media"—those large organizations responsible for producing the content we see on television and in the movies; the recordings we listen to on the radio and on our smart devices; and the books and periodicals we read in print, on an e-reader, or on the web (discussed in Chapter 10).

Gratifications Theory

which centers on the choices audience members make in order to fulfill their needs