Combo with "APUSH Chapter 9" and 6 others

Checks and Balances

"Checks and Balances" refers to the way the Constitution seeks to prevent any branch of the national government from dominating the other two. Congress enacts laws, but the president can veto them, and a two thirds majority is required to pass legislation over his objection. Federal judges are nominated by the president and approved by Congress, but to ensure their independence, the judges then serve for life. The president can be impeached by the House and removed from office by the Senate for "high crimes and misdemeanors."

Suffrage

"The Suffrage," declared a 1776 petition of disenfranchised North Carolinians, was "a right essential to and inseparable from freedom."

Fugitive Slave Clause

If a slave escaped and fled to another state, even a state that had outlawed slavery, the slave would still have to be returned to his or her master. On some level this meant that states could not even enforce their own laws.

Marbury v. Madison

John Marshall's decision declared unconstitutional the section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that allowed the courts to order executive officials to deliver judges' commissions. It exceeded the power of Congress as outlined in the constitution and was therefore void. Marbury, in other words, may have been entitled to his commission, but the Court had no power under the Constitution to order Madison to deliver it.

civic nationalism

Civic nationalism envisions the nation as a community open to all those devoted to its political institutions and social values.

Samuel Slater

Samuel Slater, an immigrant from England, established America's first factory in 1790 at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Slater built from memory a power-driven spinning jenny, one of the key inventions of the early industrial revolution. Eventually the entire manufacturing process in textiles, shoes, and many other products was brought under a single factory roof.

Disestablishment

(18th century) to separate an official state church from its connection with the government; following the Revolution, all states disestablished the Anglican Church, though some New England states maintained established Congregational Churches well into the 19th century

Tecumseh

A Shawnee chief who had refused to sign the treaty of Greenville in 1795. Tecumseh tried to revive Neolin's pan-Indian alliance of the 1760s. He repudiated chiefs who had sold land to the federal government. He called for attacks on American frontier settlements.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

A final measure, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, called for the eventual establishment of from three to five states north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi. Thus was enacted the basic principle of what Jefferson called the "empire of liberty"-- rather than ruling over the West as a colonial power, the United States would admit the area's population as equal members of the political system. Territorial expansion and self-government would grow together. It said that Indian land would not be taken without consent.

Boston Associates

A group of merchants who constructed factories.

Slave Coffle

A group of slaves chained together and forced to march to the Deep South.

War Hawks

A group of younger congressmen, mostly from the West, were calling for war with Britain. The War Hawks spoke passionately about defending the national honor from British Insults, but they also had practical goals in mind such as the annexation of Canada and the conquest of Florida.

Alien and Sedition Acts

A new Naturalization Act extended from five to fourteen years the residency requirement for immigrants seeking American citizenship. The Alien Act allowed the deportation of persons from abroad deemed "dangerous" by federal authorities. The Sedition Act (which was set to expire in 1801, by which time Adams hoped to have been reelected) authorized the prosecution of virtually any public assembly or publication critical of the government. While more lenient than many such measures in Europe, the new law meant that opposition editors could be prosecuted for almost any political comment they printed. This violated the First Amendment!

Broadside

A printed sheet posted in public places.

The Great Compromise

A two-house Congress consisting of a Senate in which each state had two members, and a House of Representatives apportioned according to population.

Free Blacks

Abolition in the North, voluntary emancipation in the Upper South, and the escape of thousands from bondage created, for the first time in American history, a sizable free black population ( many of whose members took new family names like Freeman or Freeland).

Embargo Act

According to International law, neutral nations had a right to trade non military goods with the warring nations. However both France and England had declared the other under a blockade, seeking to end all trade with America and their rival. In 1807, Congress enacted the Embargo, a ban on all American vessels sailing for foreign ports. The Embargo devastated the economies of American port cities. In 1809, Jefferson signed the Non-Inclosure Act, banning trade only with Britain and France but providing that if either side rescinded its edicts against American shipping, commerce with that country would resume. Congress enacted a measure known as Macon's Bill No, 2, which allowed trade to resume but provided that of either France or Britain ceased interfering with American rights, the president could reimpose an embargo on the other. Despite that the British continued to attack American vessels and, with their navy hard-pressed for manpower stepped up the impressment of American sailors. The embargo was reimposed on Britain in 1812.

Free Trade

Advocates of independence had envisioned America, released form the British Navigation Acts, trading freely with all the world. Opponents of price controls advocated free trade at home as well. "Natural Liberty" would regulate prices. One conception of economic freedom was based on the traditional view that the interests of the community took precedence over the property rights of individuals. The other conception, was that unregulated economic freedom would produce social harmony and public gain. After 1779, the latter view gained ascendency.

Gradual emancipation

Assumed that former slaves would remain in the country, not to be colonized abroad.

immigration

Between 1840 and 1860, over 4 million people entered the United States, the majority from Ireland and Germany. About 90 percent headed for the northern states, where job opportunities were most abundant and the new arrivals would not have to compete with slave labor. Immigrants were virtually unknown in the slave states. Numerous factors inspired this massive flow of population across the Atlantic. In Europe, the modernization of agriculture and the industrial revolution disrupted centuries-old patterns of life, pushing peasants off of traditional craft workers. The largest number of immigrants, however, were refugees from disaster-- Irish men and women fleeing the Great Famine of 1845-1851, when a blight destroyed the potato crop on which the island's diet rested. Male Irish immigrants built America's railroads, dug canals, and worked as common laborers, servants, longshoremen, and factory operatives. Irish women frequently went to work as servants in the homes of native-born Americans, although some preferred factory work to domestic service. The second largest group of immigrants, Germans, included a considerably larger number of skilled craftsmen than the Irish. They were able to move to the West where they were able to establish themselves as craftsmen, shopkeepers, and farmers. The "German triangle," as the cities of Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Milwaukee were sometimes called, attracted large German populations. Some 40,000 Scandinavians also emigrated to the United States in these years, most of whom settled on farms in the Old Northwest.

Virginia and Kentucky resolutions

Both resolutions attacked the Sedition Act as an unconstitutional violation of the First Amendment. Virginia's, written by Madison, called on the federal courts to protect free speech. The original version of Jefferson's Kentucky went further, asserting that states could nullify laws of Congress that violated the Constitution-- that is, states could unilaterally prevent the enforcement of such laws within their borders. The legislature prudently deleted this passage. The resolutions were directed against assaults on freedom of expression by the federal government, not the states.

impressment

British would seize American sailors (claiming they were British citizens and deserters).

"Citizens of Color"

By 1810, the numbers of free blacks had grown to nearly 200,000, most of them living in Maryland and Virginia. In all states except Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia, free black men who met taxpaying or property qualifications enjoyed the right to vote under new state constitutions. As the widespread use of the term "citizens of color" suggests, the first generation of free blacks, at least in the North, formed part of the political nation.

Canals

By 1837, more than 3,000 miles of canals had been built, creating a network linking the Atlantic states with the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys and drastically reducing the cost of transportation.

Lowell

By 1850, Lowell's first fifty-two mills employed more than 10,000 workers. Across New England, small industrial cities sprang up patterned on Waltham and Lowell. Massachusetts soon became the second most industrialized region of the world, after Great Britain. To persuade parents to allow their daughters to leave home to work in the mills, Lowell owners set up boarding houses with strict rules regulating personal behavior. They also established lecture halls and churches to occupy the women's free time.

railroads

By 1860, the railroad network had grown to 30,000 miles, more than the total in the rest of the world combined. The railroad opened vast new areas of the American interior to settlement, while stimulating the mining of coal for fuel and the manufacture of iron for locomotives and rails. The increasing reliance on railroads, which operated according to fixed schedules, also made Americans more conscious of arranging their lives according to "clock time."

Dartmouth College v. Woodward

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), John Marshall's Supreme Court defined corporate charters issued by state legislatures as contracts, which future lawmakers could not alter or rescind.

Land Ordinances of 1784 and 1785

Drafted by Thomas Jefferson, the Ordinance of 1784 established stages of self-government for the West. The region would be divided into districts initially governed by Congress and eventually admitted to the Union as member states. By a single vote, Congress rejected a clause that would have prohibited slavery throughout the West. A second ordinance, in 1785, regulated land sales in the region north of the Ohio River, which came to be known as the Old Northwest. Land would be surveyed by the government and then sold in "sections: of a square mile (640 acres) at $1 per acre. In each township, one section would be set aside to provide funds for public education. The system promised to control and concentrate settlement and raise money for Congress. But settlers violated the rules by pressing westward before the surveys had been completed.

Christian Republicanism

During the struggle for independence, religious and secular language merged producing the outlook scholars have called Christian Republicanism. Proponents of an evangelical religion and a republican government both believed that in the absence of some kind of moral restraint (provided by religion and government), human nature was likely to succumb to corruption and vice.

ethnic nationalism

Ethnic nationalism defines the nation as a community of descent based on a shared ethnic heritage, language, and culture.

factory system of manufacturers

Factories gathered large groups of workers under central supervision and replaced hand tools with power-driven machinery. "American system of manufacturers" relied on the mass production of interchangeable parts that could be rapidly assembled into standardized finished products.

"Open immigration"

For Europeans, the immigration process was open. Only prostitutes, convicted felons, lunatics, and persons likely to become a "public charge," were barred from entering the country.

Joseph Brant

He was an Indian leader. He was a young Mohawk in upstate New York. He hoped to create an Indian confederacy lying between Canada and the United States. He sided with the British to try to achieve his goal. But in the Treaty of Paris, the British Abandoned their Indian allies, agreeing to recognize American sovereignty over the entire region east of the Mississippi River, completely ignoring the Indian presence.

Lemuel Hayes

He was a black member of the Massachusetts militia and later a celebrated minister. He urged that Americans "extend" their conception of freedom. If liberty were truly "an innate principle" for all mankind, Haynes insisted, "even an African [had] as equally good a right to his liberty in common with Englishmen."

Tenskwatawa

He was a religious prophet who called for complete separation from whites, the revival of traditional Indian culture, and resistance to federal policies. He believed that white people were the source of all evil in the world, and that the Indians should abandon American alcohol, clothing, food, and manufactured goods.

Inflation

In 1779, with inflation out of control (in one month, prices in Philadelphia jumped 45 percent), Congress urged states to adopt measure to fix wages and prices. To finance the Revolutionary War, Congress issued hundreds of millions of dollars in paper money. Coupled with wartime disruption of agriculture and trade and the hoarding of goods by some Americans hoping to profit from shortages, this produced an enormous increase in prices.

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft published in England her extraordinary pamphlet, A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Inspired by Paine's Rights of Man, she asserted that the "rights of humanity" should not be confined to the male line." Wollstonecraft did not directly challenge traditional gender roles. Her call for greater access to education and to paid employment for women rested on the idea that this would enable ingle women to support themselves and married women to perform more capably as wives and mothers. She did drop a hint that women "ought to have representation" in government.

cotton gin

In 1793, Eli Whitney, a Yale graduate working in Georgia as a private tutor, invented the cotton gin. A fairly simple device consisting of rollers and brushes, the gin quickly separated the seed from the cotton. It made possible the growing and selling of cotton on a large scale. But, the machine had to be operated, so the need for demand for slaves also went up exponentially with the need for cotton. Whitney's invention revolutionized American slavery.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

In 1794, 3,000 American troops under Anthony Wayne defeated Little Turtle's forces at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.

National Road

In 1806, Congress authorized the construction of the paved National Road from Cumberland, Maryland, to the Old Northwest. It reached Wheeling, on the Ohio River, in 1818 and by 1838 extended to Illinois, where it ended.

Gibbons v. Ogden

In 1824, Gibbons v. Ogden, the Court struck down a monopoly the New York legislature had granted for steamboat navigation. And in 1837, with Roger B. Taney now the chief justice, the Court ruled that the Massachusetts legislature did not infringe the charter of an existing company that had constructed a bridge over the Charles River when it empowered a second company to build a competing bridge. The community, Taney declared, had a legitimate interest in promoting transportation and prosperity.

"Empire of Liberty"

In Jefferson's phrase, it would be an "empire of liberty," bound together by a common devotion to the principles of the Declaration of Independence.

Letters from an American Farmer

In Letters from an American Farmer, Crèvecoeur popularized the idea, which would become so common in the twentieth century, of the United States as a melting pot. "Here" he wrote, "individuals of all nations are melted into a new one."

Free Labor

Indentured servitude had all but disappeared un the United States by 1800. This development sharpened the distinction between freedom and slavery and between a northern economy relying on what would come to be called "free labor" (that is, working for wages or owning a farm or shop) and a southern economy ever more heavily depended on the labor of slaves.

Nativists

Indians who wished to root out European influences and resist further white encroachment on Indian lands

Thoughts on Government

Insisted that the new constitutions should create "balanced governments" whose structure would reflect the division of society between the wealthy (represented in the upper house) and ordinary men (who would control the lower).

Naturalization Act of 1790

It offered the first definition of American nationality. With no debate, Congress restricted the process of becoming a citizen from abroad to "free white persons." The law initiated a policy that some historians, with only partial accuracy, call "open immigration." It excluded a large majority of the world's population from emigrating to the "asylum of mankind" and partaking in the blessings of American freedom. For eight years, no non-white immigrant could become a naturalized citizen. Africans were not allowed to do so until 1870, but not until the 1940s did persons of Asian origin become eligible. (Native Americans ere granted American citizenship in 1924.)

Virginia Plan

It proposed the creation of a two-house legislature with a states population determining its representation in each.

Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom

It was written by Thomas Jefferson. It was introduced in the House of Burgesses in 1779 and adopted, after considerable controversy, in 1786. Jefferson's bill whose preamble declared that God "hath created the mind free," eliminated religious requirements for voting and officeholding and government financial support for churches, and barred the state from "forcing" individuals to adopt one or another religious outlook. It also offered a new justification for the idea of the United States as a beacon of liberty.

The Market Revolution

Its catalyst was a series of innovations in transportation and communication. The market revolution represented an acceleration of developments already under way in the colonial era. The market revolution helped to change Americans' conception of time itself. As the Market revolution accelerated, work in factories, workshops, and even for servants in Americans' homes took place for a specified number of hours per day.

Expeditions of Lewis and Clark

Jefferson dispatched an expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, two Virginia-born veterans of Indian wars in the Ohio Valley, to explore the new territory. Their objects were both scientific and commercial-- to study the area's plants, animal life, and geography, and to discover how the region could be exploited economically. They tried but failed to locate a water route to the Pacific Ocean, an updated dream of a Northwest Passage that could facilitate commerce with Asia. They also established trading relations with western Indians. They returned in 1806, bringing with them an immense amount of information about the region as well as numerous plant and animal specimens. Reports about geography, plant and animal life, and Indian cultures filled their daily journals. The success of their journey helped to strengthen the idea that American territory was destined to reach all the way to the Pacific.

Notes on the State of Virginia

Jefferson published his famous comparison of the races was published in 1785. White Americans increasingly viewed blacks as permanently deficient in the qualities that made freedom possible-- the capacity for self-control, reason, and devotion to the larger community. Jefferson claimed that blacks lacked these traits in his book Notes on the State of Virginia, due to natural incapacity and partly because the butter experience of slavery had rendered them disloyal to the nation.

Judicial Review

Judicial review is the doctrine under which legislative and executive actions are subject to review by the judiciary. A court with judicial review power may invalidate laws and decisions that are incompatible with a higher authority, such as the terms of a written constitution.

Miami Confederacy

Little Turtle was the leader of the Miami Confederacy. The Miami Confederacy refers to a collection of closely related Native American tribes in the 18th century. They were defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. They inflicted a humiliating defeat on the American foces led by Arthur St, Clair, the American governor of the Northwest Territory. With 630 dead, this was the costliest loss ever suffered by the United States Army at the hands of Indians.

"strict constructionists"

Many southerners who had supported the new Constitution now became "strict constructionists," who insisted that the federal government could only exercise powers specifically listed in the Constitution. Jefferson, for example, believed the new national bank unconstitutional, since the right of Congress to create a bank was not mentioned in the Constitution.

Commonwealth v. Hunt

Not until Commonwealth v. Hunt, did Massachusetts chief justice Lemuel Shaw decree that there was nothing inherently illegal in workers organizing a union or a strike.

Commissions

Official documents entitling people to assume their posts

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the ratification, called Anti-Federalists, insisted that the Constitution shifted the balance between liberty and power too far in the direction of the latter. Anti-Federalists lacked the coherent leadership of the Constitution's defenders. They included state politicians fearful of seeing their influence diminish, among them such revolutionary heroes as Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and Patrick Henry. Small farmers, many of whom supported the state debtor-relief measures of the 1780s that the Constitution's supporters deplored, also saw no need for a stronger central government. Some opponents of the Constitution denounced the document's protections for slavery; others warned that the powers of Congress were so broad that it might enact a law for abolition. Anti-Federalists insisted that "a very extensive territory cannot be governed on the principles of freedom. " They claimed that popular self-government flourished best in small communities. Anti-Federalists also pointed to the Constitution's lack of a Bill of Rights, declared Patrick henry, was "the most absurd thing to mankind that ever the world saw." Anti-Federalists drew its support from small farmers in more isolated rural areas such as the Hudson Valley of New York, western Massachusetts, and the southern backcountry.

Dissenters

Protestants who belonged to other denominations than the Anglican Church.

Religious Pluralism

Religious pluralism is an attitude or policy regarding the diversity of religious belief systems co-existing in society.

Roads

Roads had already existed during the colonial period, but their true potential was met during the improvements in roads during the market revolution. Roads became paved, which made them more navigable, and as a product, facilitated trade and transportation. Between 1800 and 1830 900 private companies built roads all over the United States, which connected farmers with the international and national trade network.

steamboats

Robert Fulton, a Pennsylvania-born artist and engineer, had experimented with steamboat designs while living in France during the 1790s. He even launched a steamboat on the Seine River in Paris in 1803. But not until 1807, when Fulton's ship the Clermont navigated the Hudson River from New York City to Albany, was the steamboat's technological and commercial feasibility demonstrated. The invention made possible upstream commerce (that is travel against the current) on the country's major rivers as well as rapid transport across the Great Lakes and, eventually, the Atlantic Ocean. By 1811 the first steamboat had been introduced on the Mississippi River; twenty years later some 200 piled its waters. Steamboats enabled millions of farm families to send their goods to markets and facilitated the growth of slave based cotton plantations in the south.

Sacajawea

She was a fifteen-year-old Shoshone Indian woman. her husband was a French fur trader. She served as a guide and interpreter during the Lewis and Clark expedition.

squatters

Some western migrants became "squatters," setting up farms on unoccupied land without a clear legal title.

South Carolina Canal and Railroad

Stretched from Charleston across the state of Hamburg, and became the first long-distance line to begin operation.

"Annuity" system

The "annuity" system-- yearly grants of federal money to Indian tribes that institutionalized continuing government influence in tribal affairs and gave outsiders considerable control over Indian life.

Bank of the United States

The Bank of the United States was the third part of Hamilton's economic plan. It was modeled after the Bank of England, to serve as the nation's main financial agent. A private corporation rather than a branch of government, it would hold public funds, issue bank notes that would serve as a currency, and make loans to the government when necessary, all the while returning a tidy profit to its stockholders.

Treaty of Greenville

The Battle of Fallen Timbers led directly to the Treaty of Greenville. The Treaty of Greenville of 1795, had twelve tribes cede most of Ohio and Indiana to the federal government. The treaty also established the "annuity" system.

Fletcher v. Peck

The Court extended judicial review to state laws. In 1794, four land companies had paid nearly every member of the state legislature, Georgia's two senators, and a number of federal judges to secure their right to purchase land in present-day Alabama and Mississippi claimed by Georgia. They then sold the land for profit. Marshall declared, the Constitution forbade Georgia from taking any action that impaired a contract. Therefore, the individual purchasers could keep their land and the legislature could not repeal the original grant.

Erie Canal

The Erie Canal was completed in 1825 and was 365 miles long. It allowed goods to flow between the Great Lakes and New York City. The Erie Canal attracted an influx of farmers migrating from New England, giving birth to cities like Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse along its path. It was increased water transportation that most dramatically increased the speed and lowered the expense of commerce.

Ladies' Association of Philadelphia

The Ladies' Association was formed to raise funds to assist American soldiers. They issued public broadsides calling for the "women of America" to name a "Treasuress" in each county in the United States who would collect funds and forward them to the governor's wife or, if he were unmarried, to "Mistress Washington." Referring to themselves as "brave Americans" who had been "born of liberty," the Ladies' Association illustrated how the Revolution was propelling women into new forms of public activism.

Louisiana Purchase

The Louisiana Territory stretched from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada and from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, had been ceded by France to Spain in 1762 as a part of the reshuffling of colonial possessions at the end of the Seven Years' War. France secretly reacquired the land in 1800. The right to trade through New Orleans, essential to western farmers, had been acknowledged in the treaty of San Lorenzo. Jefferson dispatched envoys to France offering to purchase the city. Needing money for military campaigns in Europe and with his dreams of American empire in ruins because of his inability to reestablish control over Saint Domingue, Napoleon offered to sell the entire Louisiana Territory. The cost, $15 million (equivalent to $250 million present day), made the Louisiana Purchase one of history's greatest real-estate bargains. It doubled the size of the United States and ended French presence in North America.

Report on Manufactures

The Report on Manufacturers delivered to Congress in December 1791, Hamilton called for the imposition of a tariff (a tax on imported foreign goods) and government subsides to encourage the development of factories that could manufacture products currently purchased from abroad.

The Wealth of Nations

The Wealth of Nations is Adam Smith's great treatise on economics. Smith's argument that the "invisible hand" of the free market directed economic life more effectively and fairly than governmental intervention offered intellectual justification for those who believed that the economy should be left to regulate itself.

three-fifths clause

The clause greatly enhanced the number of southern votes in the House of Representatives and therefore in the electoral college. The clause made it so that instead of the slave population not counting at all towards the population of the state, three out of every five slaves would be counted. This obviously greatly helped large slave states, because their populations increased dramatically, while the northern states did not.

"Wall of Separation"

The drive to separate church and state brought together Deists like Jefferson, who hoped to erect a "wall of separation" that would free politics and the exercise of the intellect from religious control, with members of evangelical sects, who sought to protect religion from the corrupting embrace of government.

Cotton Kingdom

The early industrial revolution, which began in England and soon spread to part of the North, centered on factories producing textiles with water-powered spinning and weaving machinery. These factories generated an immense demand for cotton, a crop the Deep South was particularly suited to growing because of its climate and soil fertility.

turnpikes

The first advance in overland transportation came through the construction of toll roads, or "turnpikes," by localities, states, and private companies.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments were known as the Bill of Rights. It contained the parts of the Constitution Americans most value today-- the freedoms of speech, the press, and religion; protection against unjust criminal procedures; equality before the law-- were not in the original document. Madison was so convinced that he believed that the balances of the Constitution would protect liberty that he believed a Bill of Rights "redundant or pointless." In a sense, the Bill of Rights offered a definition of the "unalienable rights" Jefferson had mentioned in the Declaration of Independence-- rights inherent to the human condition.

Barbary Wars

The first war fought by the United States was to protect American commerce in a dangerous world. Between 1785 and 1796, pirates captured thirteen American ships and held more than 100 sailors as "slaves," paralyzing American trade with the Mediterranean. In 1801, Jefferson refused demands for increased payments and the pasha of Tripoli declared war on the United States. The naval conflict lasted until 1804, when an American squadron won a victory at Tripoli harbor ( a victory commemorated in the official hymn of the Marine Corps, which mentions fighting on "shores of Tripoli"). The treaty ending the war guaranteed the freedom of American commerce, but Tripoli soon resumed harassing American ships. The Barbary Wars were the new nation's first encounter with the Islamic world. In the 1790s, as a part of an attempt to establish peaceful relations, the federal government declared that the United States was "not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion." But the conflicts helped to establish a long-lasting pattern in which Americans viewed Muslims as an exotic people whose way of life did not adhere to Western standards.

Fugitive Slave Clause

The fugitive slave clause accorded slave laws "extraterritoriality"-- that is, the condition of bondage remained attached to a person even if he or she escaped to a state where slavery has been abolished.

Coverture

The husband still held legal authority over the person, property, and choices of his wife. The words "to have and to hold" appeared in deeds conveying land from one owner to another, and in common marriage vows. Despite the expansion of democracy, politics remained overwhelmingly a male realm.

federalism

The idea that governmental authority vested in the national government and the state governments. There were enumerated rights that were acknowledged everywhere, and there were also rights that were case sensitive for every state.

War of 1812

The last straw before the war was the British encouraging tecumseh's efforts, and continued assaults on American shipping. He asked Congress for a declaration of war. The vote revealed a deeply divided country. Both Federalists and Republicans representing the states from New Jersey northward, where most of the mercantile and financial resources of the country were concentrated, voted against war. The South and West were strongly in favor. The bill passed the House by a vote of 79-49 and the Senate by 19-13. It was the first time the United States declared war on another country, and was approved by the smallest margin of any declaration of war in American history. The British easily repelled two American invasions of Canada and imposed a blockade that all but destroyed American commerce. In 1814, having finally defeated Napoleon, Britain invaded the United States. Its forces seized Washington D.C., and burned the White House, while the government fled for safety. American frigate Constitution defeated the British warship Guerriere on Lake Erie. Britain's assault on Baltimore was repulsed when Fort McHenry at the entrance to the harbor withstood a British Bombardment. In 1813, pan-Indian forces led by Tecumseh were defeated, and he himself killed, at the Battle of the Thames, near Detroit, by an American force led by William Henry Harrison. In 1814, Andrew Jackson defeated hostile Creeks known as the Red Sticks at the battle of Horseshoes Bend in Alabama, killing more than 800 of them. The United states and Britain signed the Treaty of ghent, ending the war out of both sides wishing to end the conflict.

Baltimore and Ohio

The nations first commercial railroad. Construction began in 1828 and finished in 1833.

Cyrus McCormick reaper

The reaper, a horse drawn machine that greatly increased the amount of wheat a farmer could harvest, was invented by Cyrus McCormick in 1831 and produced in large quantities soon afterward. Tens of thousands were in use on the eve of the Civil War. Between 1840 and 1860, American's output of wheat nearly tripled.

John Deere steel plow

The steel plow, invented by John Deere in 1837 and mass-produced by the 1850s, made possible the rapid subduing of the western prairies.

telegraph

The telegraph made possible instantaneous communication throughout the nation, The device was invented during the 1830s by Samuel F.B. Morse, an artist and amateur scientist living in New York City, and it was put into commercial operation in 1844. Using Morse code, messages could be sent over electric wires, with each letter and number represented by its own pattern of electrical pulses. Within sixteen years, some 50,000 miles of telegraph wire had been strung. Initially, the telegraph was a service for businesses, and especially newspapers, rather than individuals. It helped speed the flow of information and brought uniformity to prices throughout the country.

Hartford Convention

They called for amending the Constitution to eliminate the three-fifths clause that strengthened southern political power, and to require a two-thirds vote of Congress for the admission of new states, declarations of war, and laws restricting trade. Contrary to later myth the Hartford Convention did not call for secession or disunion. But it affirmed the right of a state to "interpose" its authority if the federal government violated the Constitution.

Fall of the Federalists

They lacked patriotism. Their stance on war was only one cause of the party's demise. The urban commercial and financial interests it championed represented a small minority in an expanding agricultural nation. Their elitism and distrust of popular self-government placed the Federalists more and more at odds with the new nation's democratic ethos. Yet in their dying moments Federalists had raised an issue-- southern domination of the national government-- that would long outlive their party.

Shunpikes

They were short detours that enabled residents to avoid tollgates, most private toll roads never turned a profit.

New Jersey Plan

This called for a single-house Congress in which each state cast one vote, as under the Articles of Confederation.

nativism

Those who feared the impact of immigration on American political and social life were called "nativists." They blamed immigrants for urban crime, political corruption, and a fondness for intoxicating liquor, and they accused them of undercutting native-born skilled laborers by working for starvation wages. Nativists contended that the Irish, supposedly unfamiliar with American conceptions of liberty and subservient to the Catholic Church, posed a threat to domestic institutions, social reform, and public education. Nativism would not become a national political movement until the 1850s.

Loyalists

Those who retained their allegiance to the crown. Altogether, an estimated 20 to 25 percent of free Americans remained loyal to the British, and nearly 20,000 fought on their side. At some points in the war, Loyalists serving with the British outnumbered Washington's army. Some Loyalists were wealthy men whose livelihoods depended on close working relationships with Britain-- lawyers, merchants, Anglican ministers, and imperial officials. Many feared anarchy in the event of an American victory. "Liberty" one wrote, "can have no existence without obedience to the laws." Some Loyalist ethnic minorities, feared that local majorities would infringe on their freedom to enjoy cultural autonomy. In the South, many backcountry farmers who had long resented the domination of public affairs by wealthy planters sided with the British. So did tenants on the New York estates of patriot landlords. Tenants hoping the British would confiscate the land and distribute it among the tenants if they supported the British cause.

Effects of the War of 1812

Three historical processes unleashed by the Revolution accelerated after the War of 1812: spread of market relations, the westward movement of population, and the rise of a vigorous political democracy. They also helped to reshape the idea of freedom, identifying it ever more closely with economic opportunity, physical mobility, and participation in a vibrantly democratic political system. After the War of 1812, the federal government moved to consolidate American control over Deep South, forcing defeated Indians to cede land, encouraging white settlement, and acquiring Florida. With American sovereignty came the expansion of slavery.

The Federalist

To generate support, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay composed a series of eighty-five essays that appeared in newspapers under the pen name Publius and were gathered as a book, The Federalist, in 1788. Hamilton wrote fifty, Madison thirty, and Jay the remainder. Today, the essays are regarded as among the most important American contributions to political thought.

Treaty of Paris

Treaty in which British formally recognized the independence of the United States; granted generous boundaries (Mississippi River to Great Lakes to Spanish Florida plus a share in the priceless fisheries on Newfoundland); Americans could no longer persecute Loyalists and had to restore their property to them; states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of debt-collecting from British (1783)

New Orleans

When the United States took control in 1803, the city had a population of around 8,000, including nearly 3,000 slaves and 1,300 free persons of color. Under Spanish rule the slaves enjoyed legal protection unknown in the United States. Spain made it easy for slaves to obtain their freedom through purchase or voluntary emancipation by the owners. Slave women had the right to go to court for protection against cruelty or rape by their owners. Under American rule, Louisiana retained this principle of "community property" within marriage. But free blacks suffered a steady decline in status. And the local legislature soon adopted one of the most sweeping slave codes in the South, forbidding blacks to "ever consider themselves the equals of whites" and limiting the practice of manumission and access to the courts. Louisiana's slaves had enjoyed farm more freedom under the rule of tyrannical Spain than as a part of the liberty-loving United States.

mill girls

Young girls who worked at mills

Land Vouchers

a form of soldiers' wages