Combo with Ch 7 - Memory and 16 others
Real-World Example of Bias:
A happy adult might look back with fondness on their childhood, induced to do so by positive memories from that time which might not actually be representative of their average mood during their childhood.
permastore
A hypothetical state of memory from which memories are not forgotten.
Backward Masking
A later visual stimulus can drastically affect the perception of an earlier one
Operant Conditing
A learning process in which a behavior becomes associated with a consequence. As a result of this the consequence influences the probability of that behavior occuring again
Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning
A learning process in which two stimuli become associated and cause a change in behavior
inhibition
A mechanism that suppresses unwanted memories that are triggered by a cue. This suppression occurs to keep these competitors from being retrieved instead of the target memory.
Chunk
A memory Unit that consists of several components that are strongly associated with one another.
false memory
A memory of an event that never occurred that the participant nevertheless believes did occur
schema
A memory representation containing general information about an object or an event. It contains information representative of a type or event rather than of a single event.
Explicit Memory Task
A memory task in which participants are instructed to remember some information. Later, recall o.r recognition test requires them to intentionally retrieve that previously learned information
incidental memory test
A memory test in which the participants are not expressly told that their memory will be tested later.
intentional memory test
A memory test in which the participants are told that their memory will be tested later.
rehearsal buffer
A mental recycling system for holding information temporarily, Where short term memory is held and then disappear
What is science?
A method of finding out new things.
modal model
A model composed of the most common features of short-term memory in the early 1970's. The modal model turned ou to be incorrect in many details.
spreading activation model
A model in which memory is conceived of as a network of nodes connected by links, and activation spreads from node to node via the links.
parallel distributed processing (PDF)
A model using a distributed representation with nodes and links. The model learns as weights are modified.
Function Morpheme
A morpheme that, while adding such content as time, mode, individuation, and evidentiality, also serves a grammatical purpose (e.g., the suffixes _s and _er, or the connecting words and or if). See also content morpheme.
working memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory adn visual-spatial information, and of information retreived from long-term memory.
short-term memory
A particular theory of primary memory. Short-term memory is usually accorded a duration of 30 s (if the material is not rehearsed) and a capacity of about five chunks of information
Associative Agnosia
A person can combine features into a whole but cannot associate the pattern with meaning
(5) Present evidence that people with anterograde amnesia (like H.M. or Clive Wearing) retain some residual memory ability.
Clive could still play instruments. HM was reluctant to shake the doctors hand because of the hand buzzer, although HM did not "remember" meeting the doctor explicitly)? Performance on the mirror drawing task, etc.
Filter; Auditory
Broadbent proposed a _____ theory of _____ perception that also covered memory, learning, and other more complex topics.
Anderson & Pitchert 1978
Buyer Burglar Experiment, To see if how we process a schema influences encoding and retrieval story with 74 noted points in it, some participants were asked to listen to the story from the pov of a house buyer, and others from the pov of a burglar distracting task then asked to recall then half stayed with their original schema and the other half switched. Those that switched remembered 7% more Results showed that schemas do affect retrieval AND encoding.
Direct Perception
By James Gibson. Environment provides all the necessary information for accurate perception.
Excitation
Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) Level 1 - Node accumulates _____
Inhibitory
Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) Level 2 - Connections can be excitatory or _____ (weights start at 0)
Hierarchically
Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) Level 3 - Excitation and inhibition communicated _____
Parallel
Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) Level 4 - Activity occurs in _____ multiple stimuli at one time
Interactive Activation Theory
Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) is a model of what theory?
Phonological Code
Conrad (1964) suggested that verbal information is represented on how it sounds
Declarative or Explicit Memory
Conscious memories for people, places, events, facts, dates, feelings, and explanations. Memory for who, what, where, when, and why.
Context->Behavior->Consequence
Consequences serve to strenghten or weaken the "box-lever" connection
Physical
Dichotic Listening: If _____ changes (e.g., frequency, loudness, etc) are noticed, then features are processed before attentional selection
Semantic
Dichotic Listening: If ______ changes (e.g., language change) are noticed, then information is categorized before attentional selection
If we acquire phobias through classical conditioning then how might we get rid of a phobia?
Extinction training, systematic desensitaztion, Flooding
B.F. Skinner
Extremely Influential scientist associated with further defining operant conditioning and using it to modify and control behavior.
Loftus & Palmer 1974
Eye witness testimony, Leading questions can influence recall, 45 participants Experiment of participants watching car crash film and words like hit or bumped or smashed influenced recall
T or F: Behaviorism seeks to explain behavior, thought and consciousness.
FALSE it seeks to only explain behavior
T or F: Watson sought to find the basic building blocks of consciousness.
FALSE. He sought to find the basic building blocks of BEHAVIOR
T or F: Behaviorists still used metronomes to perform introspection.
FALSE: Behaviorists don't use introspection it is not a visible behavior and cannot be proved wrong
T or F: Nativists were also associationists.
FALSE: EMPIRICISTS were associationists. Complex ideas are a combination of simpler ideas such as democracy.
Appetitive Consequences
Good things, such as food
Dr. Alfred Binet
French psychologist who invented the first intelligence test
The word "and" is what type of morpheme?
Function
How are functionalism and structuralism different?
Functionalism emphasizes mental processes while structuralism emphasized structures.
So, William James became inspired by evolutionary theory and came up with what?
Functionalism, the function of mental processes (emphasis was not a on mental structures)
Natural Languages show the following:
General Productivity (the ability to adapt and build upon), arbitrariness (words can be symbolic, meaning they do not sound or look like the object they are describing), and dynamic (always changing)
Intelligence
General capacity to benefit from experience to acquire knowledge and adapt to changes in the environment
G factor
General intelligence; ability to reason and problem solve
semantic memory
General term referring to sensory buffers that can hold much information, but only for a second or so.
sensory memory
General term referring to sensory buffers that can hold much information, but only for a second or so.
Production
Generate solutions or hypotheses. 2 ways to do this, Algorithms, heuristics.
Convergent thinking
Generating a single idea/theme/conclusion based on many ideas or pieces of information.
Speisman et al. 1964
Genetal Surgery, showed participants a film containing unpleasant genital surgery with different soundtracks to see what emotional response they could evoke. -intellectual -traumatic -ritual Relate to LeDoux
primary memory
Hypothetical buffer in which information may be held briefly. Contrast with secondary memory.
1/2
Iconic memory store is about ___ seconds.
Preparation
Identifying given facts and separating relevant information from irrelevant information. Define your ultimate goal.
Law of effect
If a behavior is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it wil tend to be repeated. If a behavior is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend to not be repeated
Holmes et al. 2008
Investigated the relationship between the visuospatical sketchpad and mathmatic performance in 7-8 and 9-10 year olds. found that if you have a large visuospatical sketchpad capacity you were often better at mathematics.
Who suggested that both rationalism and empiricism had their place in the quest for knowledge?
Kant (<- seriously, what didn't Emmanual Kant do?
Who suggested that both empiricism and rationalism had their places in the pursuit of knowledge?
Kant, Rational through helps to organize our experiences.
release from PI
Occurs when the decline in performance caused by proactive interference is reversed because of a switch in the to-be-remembered stimuli
Seemantic
Memory about the world. General common knowledge.
declarative memory
Memory for cats and events, often contrasted with procedural memory.
Episodic
Memory for events in your life. Autobiographical memory
Word Superiority Effect
Memory for letters is best when those letters appear in the context of a word rather than a non-word. (ambiguous letters)
mood congruence?
Memory is better when the material to be learned is similar with the person's current mood. -Good mood: easier to learn nice items -Bad mood: easier to learn nastier items
Bartlett 1932
Memory is reconstructive, it is reconstruced by the schemas that influence recall
Dual-code hypothesis
Memory is stored in two ways: verbal code and picture code. Mental images are remembered better because it contains both picture and verbal codes.
Holmes & Holmberg 1994
Men who were experiencing marital problems reported previously positive emotional memories than they initally said, suggesting that Flashbulb memories can be altered emotionally.
Priming
Mental activation that can spread from one concept to another. We're connecting things. Similar to the game iAssociate.
Cognition
Mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information. Organizing, Understanding, and Communicating information.
Concepts
Mental representation of a group or a category.
Mental Imagery
Mental representations that "stand in" for objects of events. They have a "picture-like" quality in our mind's eye.
recognition test
Method of testing memory in which the experimenter presents the participants with the to be remembered material, along with other material that was not initially encoded (distractors). The participant must select the to be remembered items from among these other items.
Proactive Interference
Old information interferes with our ability to remember new information
intrusions
On a memory test, material that is appropriate to another context is inappropriately produced as a response in the wrong context.
Divergent Thinking
One main theme or idea that generates many different ideas
Prepares; About
One role of is attention is - Attention _____ us for what we are ______ to perceive
Select
One role of is attention is - Attention allows us to _____ some aspects of a scene while ignoring others
Bind
One role of is attention is - Attention helps us to _____ information together to create a unified perceptual experience
Why cant we always retrieve everything that is stored in long-term memory, especially older memories?
One theory...interference
Algorithms
Step by step procedure that, if appropriate, will always result in the solution.
Process Model
Sternberg's study used this kind of model; this was a stage model that was designed to explain the mental steps involving performance of a task, usually implying the stages occurred in order
Stimulus Generalization
Stimuli that are similar to the CS will also elicit the conditioned response to some degree
Conditioned Stimulus
Stimulus that starts out neutral
Conditioning Procedure
Stimulus1+Stimulus 2 Stimulus 1->Response
Define Blocking
Temporary retrieval failure or loss of access, such as the tip-of-the-tongue state, in either episodic or semantic memory.
Reduces
Test memory after a short delay following the last stimuli on the list _______ recency effects
Produces
Test memory immediately after last stimulus on list _______ recency effects
The renaissance brought back 2/3 greek philosophers assumptions. Which assumption was difficult to grasp?
That humans are not special (Predictability)
Elaboration
The "web" of connections, associations, and relevant meanings given to a stimulus
Distal Stimulus
The _____ _____ is the source of sensory stimulation
Size
The _____ of the suffix effect varies depending on what people understand a sound to be.
Ventral; Temporal
The _____ route is (P) parvocellular pathway ---> V1 ---> V4 ---> _____ cortex
Proximal Stimulus
The ______ _____ is the impression that the stimulation leaves our sensory receptors
Suffix
The ______ effect is poorer memory for a serious of items if there is an additional sound at the end of the list
Dorsal; Parietal
The ______ route is (M) magnocellular pathway --->V1 ---> MT (V5) ---> _____ cortex
Attention
The ability to hold rules in mind and actively use rules to organize information; a higher-order property of thought
picture theory of imagery
The experience of visual imagery is created by activating a memory representation. This memory representation was created by viewing objects in the real world.
(3) What basic mechanism is thought to underlie semantic priming effects?
The facilitation of later processing of a stimulus by previous exposure to the stimulus.
typicality
The fact that some members of a category are viewed as better exemplars than others.
word length effect
The finding that participants can remember more words if the words can be said quickly
default value
a characteristic that is a part of a schema that is assumed to be true in the absence of other information. For example unless one is told otherwise, one assumes that a dog is furry, furriness is a default characteristic for dogs.
cognitive economy
The principle of designing a cognitive system in a way that conserves resources (memory storage space)
Occam's razor
The principle that parsimony is important in evaluation scientific theories. Specifically, if two theories account for data equally well, the simpler theory is to be preferred.
Memory
The process by which we observe, store, and recall information
Memory
The retention of information or experiences of time
Atkinson-Shiffrin theory
The theory that states memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short -term memory, and long-term memory
Underextension
The use of a word to denote a smaller class of items than is appropriate; for example, referring only to one particular animal as a dog; may call their pet "Doggy", but not other dogs
What
The ventral route goes through the temporal cortex which is also the _____ pathway.
Spatial
The ventral route that goes through the temporal cortex and is known as the "what" pathway specializes in _____ perception
classical view of categorization
The view that concepts are represented as lists of necessary and sufficient properties.
Manipulates
The visuospatial sketchpad stores and _________ visual-spatial information
Perception
The way we select, organize, and interpret sensory input
decay
The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time. Idea which is widely discredited...forgetting is more likely caused by interference or by a combination of the two (decay+interference)
hierarchical theory
Theory of memory organization in which concepts are organized in a taxonomic hierarchy and characteristic properties are stored at each level.
Retina
This is the layer of the eye that is covered with rods and cones. It motivates the process of visual sensation and perception.
Chunking
This is used because of the capacity limits in our STM and it is a way of combining small bits of info into larger bits
Echoic Memory
This kind of memory is auditory
Iconic Memory
This kind of memory is visual
Auditory Sensory
This memory is also known as echoic memory; it's fresh and lasts about 4 seconds
Constructivism
This perception uses data from the world and prior knowledge and our expectations. Information is often ambiguous. Example: Necker Cube
Flanker Task
This task is when you see 4 letters together and you raise your left hand if the middle letter is 'S' and raise your right hand if letter in the middle is 'H'
Who proposed the 'law of effect'?
Thorndike
rehearse
To practice material in an effort to memorize it
Does autoshaping happen in people?
To some extent, yes how about $$$
tip-of- the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
a type of effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident that we know something but can not quite pull it out of memory
serial position curve
a u-shape pattern indicating the tendency to recall more items from the beginning and end of a list than from the middle
chunk
a unit of knowledge that can be decomposed into smaller units of knowledge. Similarly, smaller units of knowledge can be combined ("chunked") into a single unit of knowledge.
Principle of Conventionality
a word learning bias that the child uses in word learning; it states that there are culturally agreed-upon names for things and these do not change; society determines word meanings
expertise
after doing something every day for 10 years, you probably have this
self-terminating
after the target is found, the search stops
explicit memory
aka declarative memory, the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated........information is transmitted from the hippocampus to the frontal lobes
Implicit memory
aka non-declarative memory, memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience
connectionism
aka parallel distributed processing, the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory
Sustained attention
aka vigilance, the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
exhaustive processing
all items in a set are examined
overt practice
aloud and obvious practice
Speech acts
an action carried out through language, such as promising, lying, and greeting; a) Representative: tells current state of affairs, give information "the coat is red" b) Expressive: shares emotions "I feel" c) Declaration: statement that changes the situation "now we are going to move on and go to our next class" d) Directive: tells someone what to do e) Commissive: you commit to do something in the future "I'm going to"
Behaviorism
an approach to psychology that focuses on objective, observable reactions to stimuli in the environment.
mask
an array of tiny random black and white squares or a stimulus of randomly oriented squiggles and lines. A mask is used to knock another stimulus out of iconic memory. Mask can also be used as a a verb ("The second stimulus masked the first")
Introspection
an early approach to studying mental activity, in which carefully trained observers systematically analyzed their own sensations and reported them as objectively as possible, under standardized conditions.
recognition task
an explicit memory task that requires participants to identify which items on a list had been presented at an earlier time.
Long-term Potentiation
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Mnemonic definition
any tool that helps someone remember
mnemonic
any tool that helps someone remember
Cooing
around 2 months, babies begin to make vowel-like noises, because of their pleasant "oo" quality; first stage of language, babies coo vowels - cooing also tends to include universal phonemes; not limited by phonemes in baby's particular native laguage; at 8 months, babies lose ability to coo phonemes that are not part of their own language
What is Empiricism?
asserts that knowledge can only be obtained through EXPERIENCE, reality is in the world.
Le Doux
"Arrousal of emotion can facillitate memory of events. May not always be accurate"
Brown & Kulik's Photographic Theory (1997)
'when extreme emotion is associated with an event it triggers neutral mechanisms and vivid details are remembered. (camera flash) -Aim: to see how your culture affects the way you remember things. -Participants: 80 black and white -Procedures: asked about how they felt about JKF and MLK -Findings: They found that those that were of the same ethnicity of JFK remembered more and in better detail of him. -Shock is an important factor.
Real-World Example of Suggestibility:
A person sees a crime being committed by a redheaded man. After reading in the newspaper that the crime was committed by a brown-haired man, the witness "remembers" a brown-haired man instead of a redheaded man.
Real-World Example of Misattribution
A person who witnesses a murder after watching a television program may incorrectly blame the murder on someone she saw on the television program
McGurk Effect
A phenomenon in which visual information influences speech perception, when individuals integrate both visual and auditory information.
epiphenomenon
A phenomenon that is not related to the function of a system. Some researchers argues that images are an epiphenomenon; the sensation of "seeing" an image is real, but that doesn't mean that the sensation has anything to do with the actual cognitive task being performed.
Creole
A pidgin language that evolves to the point at which it becomes the primary language of the people who speak it.
Ill-Defined Problem
A problem in which the desired goal is unclear, information needed to solve the problem is missing, and/or several possible solutions to the problem exist.
Data-Driven Processing
A process driven by the stimulus pattern, the incoming data. It is bottom-up processing.
Conceptually-Driven Processing
A process of context and higher knowledge influence lower-level processes. It is top-down processing.
Top-Down Processing
A process which information is driven by our prior knowledge and our expectations.
Bottom-Up Processing
A process which information is driven by stimulus data only. Direct perception is an example of this.
graceful degradation
A property of a model (of memory or of another cognitive process), whereby if the model is partially damaged it is able to continue functioning, although not as accurately. The human brain often shows graceful degradation; if it is damaged, cognitive processes are often compromised but can still partially function.
prototypes
A prototype has all the features that are characteristic of a category.
Applied Behavior Analysis
A psychotherapy technique that uses direct application of rewards and punishments to change maladaptive behaviors in humans
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or mental process resulting from practice or experience
distributed representation
A representation scheme in which a concept is distributed across multiple units
local representation
A representational scheme in which a concept has a single location
elaboration
concentrate on the specific meaning of a particular concept; you'll also try to relate this concept to your prior knowledge and to interconnected concepts that you have already mastered
Divided attention
concentration on more than one activity at the same time
long-term potentiation
concept states that if two neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between the, and the memory, may be strengthened
Hypothetical constructs
concepts that are not themselves directly measureable or observable but that serve as mental models for understanding how a psychological phenomenon works
Maxim of Quality
concerns telling the truth and making only assertions that you can support with credible evidence
What is Dualism and who fathered it?
introspection was the way to gain knowledge;Descartes
spreading activation
involves the parallel activation of multiple links (priming) among nodes within the network
part of the brain involved in consolidating long term memories
hippocampus
storage?
holding information
Working Memory
holds only the most recently activated portion of long-term memory and moves these activated elements into and out of brief, temporary memory storage
emotion
is a brief psychological reaction to a specific stimulus. Is often short in nature and directed instead of general.
amnesia
is a severe gap in an individuals episodic memory.
What is Structuralism?
A school of thought focused on determining the contents of the mind, through introspection
Serial Exhaustive Search
A search process in which all possible elements are searched by one before the decision is made, even if the target is found early
cued recall
A way of testing memory in which the experimenter provides the participant the time and place in which the memory was encoded, as well as some hunt abut the content of the to be remembered material.
savings in relearning
A way of testing memory in which the participant learns some material (a list of words) to a criterion (can recite the list twice without error). After a delay, the participant must relearn the list to criterion again. If the participant must relearn the list to criterion again. If the participant can reach criterion in fewer trials the second time, he or she has shown savings in relearning.
Where Renaissance philosophers concerned with: A) origin of knowledge or B) explain the workings of the mind.
A); they addressed questions of memory and perception as part of that issue
mood
is an emotional state that is longer lasting than emotions and tend to be more general in nature. However, both mood and emotion share the characterisitc that they are caused by a specific stimulus.
mood congruence
is the ability to recall information better if you are in the same mood as when you learned the information. (If you are happy when you learn something, chances are you will remember it better if you are happy upon recall.
encoding
is the initial acquisition of information. During encoding, one presesses and represents this information in memory.
autobiographical memory
is the memory for events and issues that are related to yourself. (Think about them as your internal autobiography)
episodic memory
is the memory of autobiographical events such times, places, associated emotions that can be explicitly stated and recalled.
What is Rationalism?
it asserts that knowledge can only be obtained through INTROSPECTION, reality is in the abstract concept.
proactive interference
old memories interfere with the recall of new information
distinctiveness
one memory trace should be different from all other memory traces
General Productivity
the ability in language to adapt and build upon previous structures
deep processing
thinking about the meaning of stimulus materials at encoding
hindsight bias
thinking you knew something in retrospect
Working memory
three part system that allows us to hold information temporarily as we preform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to help us understand, make decisions, and solve problems
Long-term Store
thus far limitless capacity, potentially permanent duration
Surface Form
verbatim mental representation of the exact words used, as well as the syntax of the sentences read or heard; sentence structure
Long-term store
very large capacity, capable of storing information for very long periods
What could he learn?
•Could store 5-9 digits •Could learn some things -Habituation: getting used to something -Classical conditioning -Operant conditioning -Skills
What does H.M.'s case suggest about memory?
•There's a difference between short term and long term storage •Long term storage has several aspects -General knowledge, life memories -Skills, predispositions, reflex learning •Different types of memories are involved with different parts of the brain
How was his memory affected?
Could not put new info into LTM
What could he not learn?
Could not put new info into LTM
Mental Imagery
Creating a mental "story" or scene around stimuli that we would like to remember
Neisser
Criticised Brown & Kulik 1977 with It could just be 'serial reproduction' Bartlett 1932 War of the Ghosts.
Yuille & Cutshall 1986
Criticised Loftus & Palmer for lack of ecological validity. Did the same experiment in a real life situation and found recall was very good, more affected by distance from the event than leading questions.
Richard Castillo 1997
Cultural Schemas, when a cultural group create schemas based on a 'higher reality', eg giving an object more meaning than it posseses. The fact that it is a cultural schema reify's it for you.
Two Types of Long-term memory
Declarative or explicit memory, Nondeclarative or implicit memory.
Time
In the Brown-Peterson task results, forgetting was due to passage of _____.
Decreased; Increased
In the Brown-Peterson task results, memory accuracy _______ quickly as recall interval _______.
Inhibit
In the Flaker Task, attention can actively ______ or suppress irrelevant information so that its activation level is below baseline
Automatic
In the Stroop Effect, controlled processing takes mental effort, but becomes ______ as the skill is learned (Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977)
Cones and Rods
In the eye, there is transduction in 2 cells in the retina, they are known as the _______ and ______.
tacit knowledge
In the imagery debate, tacit knowledge is a participants' knowledge of how objects in the real world move. It was suggested by some that participants used this tacit knowledge to simulate real-world movement and thereby produce results in imagery experiments that match real-world phenomena.
Lower
In visual presentation there is ______ accuracy with suppression
Without
In visual presentation, acoustic similarity effect _____ with suppression
False memories
Inaccuracies and distortions of our reconstructed memories that occur over time.
Which parts of his brain were removed?
Included hippocampus and adjacent areas
Apperceptive Agnosia
Individual features cannot be integrated into a whole; a basic disruption in perceiving patterns
Eysneck 1988
Individual intelligence and learning differences may depend on working memory differences.
Three types of Amnesia
Infantile, retrograde, anterograde
context
Information about the time and place in which a memory was encoded.
Short Term Memory
Information from our Sensory Memory that is being attended to will enter into our _____ _____ _____
Brown & Kulik 1997, Theory:
Photographic Theory
Visual;
Posner's spatial cuing task: worked on _____ attention focus.
Early
Selective attention can occur very _____ in processing, based on very low-level, physical characteristics, as Broadbent proposed
Encoding Processes
Selective attention, Levels of processing, Elaboration, Mental Imagery
Pandemonium
Selfridge's model of _______ was an early indicator of feature detection and a model of pattern recognition. There are three levels.
Large; Short
Sensory Memory has a ______ capacity and ______ duration.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory
Sensory Memory, Sort-term memory, Long-term memory.
Distal Stimulus
Sensory input of sight of tree, sound of falling, texture of objects, etc.
Blocks to Problem Solving
Set Effects: Starting assumptions about what types of strategies are likely to be effective, but if it isn't right, it becomes an issue. Help define ill-defined problems, giving necessary constraints and reducing search space, but they can result in ignoring relevant opinions. Functional Fixedness: The tendency to be rigid about how one thinks of an object's function; not having appropriate information
Sandra Bem 1998
Sex role inventory, said that when people were given a sex type they remembered more 48 male, 48 female 61 random words at 3 seconds Recalled, same amount just in a different order. We use different groupings
Levels of Processing levels
Shallow-physical features are analyzed, Intermediate-recognition and labeling Deep-meaningful characteristics
Phonological loop
briefly holds inner speech for verbal comprehension and for acoustic rehearsal
Visuospatial sketchpad
briefly holds some visual images
phonological loop
briefly store speech-based information about the sounds of language
How did Wundt study structuralism?
by using introspection, a method of study in which people tried to follow their own thought processes.
Short-term store
capable of storing limited information for somewhat longer periods
Sensory store
capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods
miller
capacity. in short term memory you can store 7 chunks of information. miller looked at psychological research and saw that things come in 7s.
proactive interference
earlier learning interferes with new learning
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words. "I want"
reminiscence bump
effect that adults remember more events from the second and third decades of life than form other decades
Slips of the Tongue
overt cases of misspeaking which are also clues to the processes of speech production
semantic memory
person's knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school; and everyday knowledge
forcing functions
physical constraints that prevent us from acting without considering the key information to be remembered
What is the Pollyanna principle?
pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and accurately than less pleasant items
retention-delay test
reading rate determines recall performance (intelligence measure) to measure working memory
Free recall
recall all items in any order you choose
Serial recall
recall all items in the exact order in which they were presented
primacy effect
recalling items at the beginning of list
Reasoning by Analogy
see a problem with a similar structure, then use knowledge of previous problem to solve new problem
Recognition task
selection or otherwise identification of an item as being one that one has been previously exposed to
Episodic Memory
stores personally experienced events or episodes
Visuospatial working memory
stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery
Serial
A _____ search has elements with similar features, it's time consuming, and each element must be examined to find a target
Total-time hypothesis
Amount of time devoted to actively learning.
Why are flashbulb memories so easy to encode and seem to be so vivid?
Amygdala working with the hippocampus.
For context to have an effect:
(1) type of task matters (recognition vs. recall) (2) other learning cues should be weak (3) bigger effect on older memories
Time between stimulus and the target
(100 ms, 500ms, 1s)
serial exhaustive search
(Sternberg) The memory set is scanned one item at a time (serial), and the entire set is scanned on every trail, whether or not a match is found (exhaustive).
elaborative rehearsal?
(same as elaboration) processing new information by associating it with other concepts in permanent memory
glanzer and cunitz
(smiley face graph) gave participants a list of words and asked to recall. group 1 had to recall straight away. group 2 had to count backwards for 30 seconds and then recall. Serial Positition Curve. counting backwards diplaced last few words (Recency Effect)
Finkenauer et al. (1998) Emotional-Intergrative Model of Flashbulb Memories: Evaluation.
- Cultural Bias - Longditudinal study (Reliability) - Not Reductionistic (Detailed questions)
semantic network
Name given to all the nods and links in a spreading activation model
echoic memory
Name given to the auditory variety of sensory memory.
Combination
Need _____ of top-down and bottom-up processing to account for context effects, biases, experiences, etc.
shallow quality of a word
- visual appearance of the word -sound of a word
What is the classic test of depth of processing?
-Ask the subjects yes/no questions about words •Force shallow or deep processing •Then flash the word on a screen •Later, the subjects are tested for recall of the words Not told they would be tested -Results: •Remembered the fill-in words better than the physical characteristic words
Evaluate two models of memory
-Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968 -Baddedly & Hitch 1974 -Baddedly & Hitch 1974 -Pickering & Gathercole 2001 -Holmes et al. 2008 -Eysneck 1988
To what extent is one cognitive process reliable? (Reconstructed memory)
-Bartlett 1932 -Bartlett 1932 -Loftus & Palmer 1974 -Loftus & Palmer 1974 -Yuille & Cutshall 1986
Evaluate one theory of how emotion affects one cognitive process (Flashbulb Memory)
-Brown & Kulik 1977 -Brown & Kulik 1977 -Neisser -Neisser & Harsch 1992 -Talarico & Rubin 2003 -Holmes & Holmberg 1994
Why make these distinctions?
-Different types of memories have different characteristics -Different brain injuries can affect different types of memories
Evaluate Schema Theory
-Fredrick Bartlett, Jean Piaget -Anderson & Pitchert 1978 -Sandra Bem 1998 -Richard Castillo 1997 -Cohen 1993
Brown & Kukik's Photographic Theory (1997) Evaluation
-Low sample size -Reductionistic -Cultural Bias (Ethnocentric) -Historical Bias -Ecologically Valid -Ethical Conway (1995) did the same but with Margret Thatcher & UK students. Therefore must be events of great personal significance. McClockskey et al. (1988) -Longditudinal Study -Initially asked about memories of the Challenger explosion (just after incident) - Then asked again 9 months later -Findings: not as accurate, some discrepancies.
How was depth of processing tested with pictures of faces?
-Subjects were shown many photos of subjects -Asked to make judgments about either • Width of the nose • Honesty of the person -Later asked to identify which faces they had seen
Why does it occur?
-The self has a rich set of cues • Allows for elaboration and distinctiveness • We have a complex network about ourselves -Instructions encourage people to see how their traits are related to one another • More cues, easier to retrieve -We may rehearse material more if it is related to us • Elaborative rehearsal
What is the self-referential effect?
-enhancement of long term memory by relating material to personal experiences -People recall more adjectives that they say apply to them than adjectives they say don't apply
deep quality of a word
-meaning of the word
What is maintenance rehearsal?
-repeating a stimulus •less likely to be permanently stored than with elaborative rehearsal
Depth of processing: What is it?
...
Which type of rehearsal is most efficient for getting information into LTM?
...
chunking
...
regency effect
...
What are the assumptions made by cognitive psychologists?
1) the world can be understood and predicted because it is SYSTEMATIC (Determinism) 2) Humans are part of this world and can be understood in the same way (this gets "lost" during the dark ages) 3) Explanations should be grounded in events in the world rather than magic (positivism/ logical positivism) 4) Mechanism (descartes) 5) reductionism (Physics) 6) Construction/Representation
Why memory is better for deep words
1. Distinctiveness 2. Elaboration
retrieval-induced forgetting
The phenomenon whereby retrieving some memories makes you forget other, related memories.
Heuristics
A "rule of thumb" or educated guess
What are three assumptions that GREEK PHILOSOPHERS made?
1.) The world can be understood and predicted because it works in systematic ways. 2.) We can potentially understand and predict how humans operate. 3.) Explanations of events in this world should rely on other events within this world instead of invoking magical or mystical things.
What two types of assumptions are usually made when we study the mind?
1.) What it is that needs to be explained. 2.) The beliefs that influence the questions we pose when we study something.,
What were Watson's 4 principles of behaviorism?
1.)Psychologists should focus only on that which is observable 2.) Psychologists should explain behavior ONLY 3.) Theories should be as simple as possible 4.) Find the basic building blocks of BEHAVIOR
When did Behaviorism begin to receive scrutiny?
1950's
Brown & Kulik
1997
Encoding
1st step, The process of taking information in through your senses and translating it into a form that your brain can "write down" and store for later use
HM
27 years old and suffered severe epilepsy. cut out hippocampus. episodic and semantic memory damaged.couldnt remember anything after operation. could still learn procedural things eg tennis.
Parallel
A _____ search has elements that are different from each other, they are easier because they are organized, and target unique for at least one feature pop-out effect
Gardner
9 types of intelligence-Verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist.
Attentional Blink
A brief slow-down in mental processing due to having processed another very recent event. This is approximately .13 seconds.
visuospatial sketchpad
A buffer on which visual or spatial information can be manipulated and briefly stored. It is believed to be similar to and perhaps synonymous with visual imagery.
property inheritance
A characteristic of some models of categorization; concepts inherit properties from the concepts that are higher in the hierarchy.
default values
A characteristic that is part of a schema that is assumed to be true in the absence of other information. For example, unless one is told otherwise, one assumes that a dog is furry; furriness is a default characteristic for dogs.
The Phonological Loop
A component of WM and is responsible or 'recycling' verbal material. Has two subcomponents: Phonological Store and Articulatory Loop
Central Executive
A component of WM; the head 'boss' of the system
Levels of Processing
A continuum of memory processing ranging from shallow processing to deep processing. Deep processing leads to better memory.
Agnosia
A deficit in recognizing objects, either because feature patterns cannot be synthesized into a whole or the person cannot then connect a pattern to meaning
hemispatial neglect
A deficit of attention cause by brain damage in which a patient ignores the half of the visual world opposite the brain damage.
Reverse
A disadvantage of automaticity is that it is difficult to ________ the effects of practice in an automated task
More
A disadvantage of automaticity is that our mental processes become _____ automatic as a function of practice and over learning
Action Slips
A disadvantage of automaticity is that we can have ______ ______, which are unintended, and often automatic actions that are unnecessary for that given situation.
Hemineglect; Left
A disorder of attention when there is a disruption or decreased ability to attend to something and typically affected in the _____ visual field.
Prosopagnosia
A disruption in face recognition
Change Blindness
A failure to notice the change in a visual stimuli (photographs) when those changes occur during a saccade (sweeping)
Feature Analysis
A feature, in this approach, is a pattern, a fragment or component that can appear in combination with other features across a wide variety of stimulus patterns
levels of processing framework
A framework for understanding memory that proposes that the most important factor determining whether something will be possible whether something will be remembered is the depth of processing.
category
A group of objects that have something in common.
Working Memory Span
A growing body of evidence suggests that people differ in WM capabilities, and that these are related to various cognitive processes
Brown-Peterson Task
A simple three-letter stimulus was presented to the subject, followed by a three-digit number. Subjects were instructed firt to attend to the stimulus, then to begin counting backward by threes from the number they were shown. This counting was a distracter task designed to prevent rehearsal and prove that forgetting caused by decay.
dissociations
A situation in cases of brain damage, in which the damage causes a problem in one function while not affecting other functions
homunculus
A small person inside the head who performs cognitive functions such as looking at images on a screen. Proposing a homunculus explains nothing, and no one would ever do it on purpose; accusing someone of having a homunculus in his or her model is a scathing criticism.
unlearning
A source of forgetting. Practicing a new association between a cue and target memory weakens the associative link between the cue and another memory.
occlusion - in memory
A source of forgetting. There is a stronger link from a cue to some undesired memory than to the target, and the cue therefore always calls up the undesired memory.
meta-analysis
A statistical method for combining numerous studies on a single topic. A meta-analysis computes a statistical index (known as effect size, or d) that tells us whether a particular variable has a statistically significant effect, when combining all the studies.
Mental Set
A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem
parsimonious
A theory is parsimonious if it is the simplest theory possible that accounts for all the data.
script
A type of schema that describes a series of events.
proposition
A verbal representation of knowledge. It is the most basic unit of meaning that has a truth value.
flashbulb memory
A very rich, very detailed memory that is encoded when something that is encoded when something that is emotionally intense happens.
free recall
A way of testing memory in which the experimenter provides no cues other than the time and place in which the memory was encoded
Phoneme
An Auditory Pattern Recognition; One specific language sound. A whole _______ could be missing and the word could still be perceived.
Definition of Flashbulb Memory
Accurate and long lasting memories formed at times of intense emotion such as significant public or personal events. Extreme emotion may lead to forgetting.
Problem of Invariance
An Auditory Pattern Recognition; The sounds of speech are not invariant from one time to the next
Auditory Erasure
After hearing the list of items, participants in the suffix group heard an additional auditory stimulus
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
An effect in which you are certain you know a concept but cannot think of the proper term for it.
source confusion
An error in a source memory. For example, you mistake your own thought for an event that actually happened (or vice versa). Another type of source confusion is mixing up the time and location information of two real memories. For example, you might read the New york Times and the National Enquirer on the same morning and think you read an article in one paper, whereas it was actually in the other.
Phobic Disorder
An excessive fear of a specific object
Implicit memory task
An indirect measure of memory. Participants see the material and later during the test phase they are instructed to complete a cognitive task that does not directly ask for either recall or recognition. previous experience with material facilitates performance on a later task.
exemplar
An instance of a category.
demand characteristics
Anything about the way the experiment is conducted that signals to the participant what the desired, appropriate or expected behavior is.
What was the 2nd wave?
Applied scientific method to study of the mind; not done previously due to presumptions people held about how the mind was likely to work.
Lazarus 1975
Appraisals are assesments we make of a situation Necessary for humans to react to emotional stress
Lazarus & Folkman 1984
Appraisals, everyone reacts differently in a different situation because we are individuals
Artificial concepts (Formal concepts)
Arise out of logical rules or definitions. All those objects meeting the criteria are included, those missing features are excluded.
Empiricism
Aristotle
Who is the father of Empiricism
Aristotle
Who thought that the mind must be in the heart, not the brain?
Aristotle, based on the observation that sometimes people survived severe injury to the brain, but they never survived serious injury to the heart.
How do we form concepts?
Artificial and natural concepts.
AutoShaping
As a result of CS-US pairings, subjects begin to treat the CS like they would the US
What is Associationism?
Associationism holds that knowledge originates from simple information from the senses and that this sensory information can be combined into more complex ideas.
Operant Conditioning
Associations between a response and its consequences
Cannot
Attention _____ move eyes without moving attention first
Can
Attention _____ move without moving eyes
Conscious
Attention is necessary for _____ perception
100-200
Attention movement precedes eyes movement by ___-___ ms
Four Main Processes of Observational Learning
Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Reinforcement/Motivation
Echoic Sensory Memory
Auditory sensory memory that lasts up to several seconds
Introspectionists were concerned with: A) origin of knowledge or B) explain the workings of the mind.
B) they were trying to explain conscious thought (Wundt, breaking down conscious elements)
Aversive consequences
Bad things, such as shock
Behaviorism
Behavior changes through rewards and punishments. Can only know that which is directly observable. No speculation about what is going on in "The mind"
Positive Contingencies
Behavior leads to receiving the consequence
Negative Contingencies
Behavior leads to the absence or removal of a consequence
Developmentally delayed
Behavioral and cognitive skills are at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of other who are the same age
3rd wave?
Behaviorism, science of overt behavior; until the late 1950's
Behaviorism vs. Tolman
Behaviorism-No free will, No expectancies, No learning without rewards. Tolman-Goal directed behavior, Form expectancies, Learning without rewards
Partial Reinforcement extintion effect
Behaviors that have been partially reinforced are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors that have been continuously reinforced
Mental Imagery (mnemonic strategy
Being able to imagine an item or idea when it is not physically present or active.
Real-World Example of Persistence:
Can range from a blunder on the job to a truly traumatic experience, like rape.
Natural Concepts
Categories that have "general rules" about what belongs. We create a "prototype" or "best example"
probabilistic view of categorization
Category membership is proposed to be a matter of probability. Prototype and exemplar models fall within the probabilistic view.
Three pars of Working Memory
Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuospatial working memory.
Neisser & Harsch 1992
Challenger spaceshuttle explosion, tested memory recall 24 hours after, and two years after. Two years later the recall wasnt accurate at all
Meaning
Cherry and Moray's experiment concluded that in our unshadowed ear/unattended channel, there is little memory for _____
Do Not
Cherry and Moray's experiment concluded that in our unshadowed ear/unattended channel, we _____ notice if language changes from English to German or any other language
Do Not
Cherry and Moray's experiment concluded that in our unshadowed ear/unattended channel, we ______ remember one word is repeated 35 times
Tone
Cherry and Moray's experiment concluded that in our unshadowed ear/unattended channel, we notice change in gender, _____, loudness, location
How Classical Conditioning Works
Choose two stimuli-Stimulus 1(neutral)->no response, Stimulus 2(meaningful-> response
What are the Mnemonic Techniques?
Chunking, Loci, Peg word, Acronyms, etc.
emotional conditioning
Classical conditioning in which the unconditioned response is an emotion
Intelligence Quotient
Comparing mental age with chronological age multiplied by 100
Prosopagnasia
Condition in which people cannot recognize human faces
Low; High
Cones have ______ sensitivity to light, but have _____ acuity.
The word "cow" is what type of morpheme?
Content
What were the results?
Correctly recognized more faces judged for honesty -Why? Distinctiveness Elaboration
If much of our behavior is controlled by rewards and punishments, do we really have "free will?"
Depends on who you talk to...
Dualism
Descartes
Dualism is to ______ as tabula rasa is to ___________ (Locke, Descartes, Freud, Jung).
Descartes Locke
"I think therefore I am" was said by whom? What was this person best known for?
Descartes; Dualism.
process model
Describes relationships among processes. Sternberg (1969) proposed a simple flowchart of the four separat mental processes that occured during the timed portion of very trail.
Real-World Example of Transience:
Deterioration of a specific memory over time
What implications did the ability of being able to predict humans have?
Determinism. It implied we are as easy as an algorithm. It denied us of our free will.
Intelligence tests how?
Developed a series of questions that got progressively more difficult. Tested child's mental age and compared it to the child's actual age or chronological age.
Wechsler tests
Developed different IQ tests specifically for adults and children. Has a verbal score and performance(nonverbal) score
Unattended
Dichotic Listening: Changes noticed in ______ channel indicate location of attention filter
What are the 3 kinds of attention processes?
Divided, Selective, and Saccadic Eye Movements
Examples for Appetitive vs. Aversive
Dog sits on command-> gets a treat Touch the filing cabinent-> get a shock
"I think therefore I am." is statement that supports what and was said by whom?
Dualism; Descartes, he believed introspection was the way to gain knowledge
Relearning Task
Ebbinghaus developments in general scientific methodology; A list is learned, set aside for some period of time, then relearned to the same criterion of accuracy (e.g., one perfect recitation of list)
Saving Task
Ebbinghaus developments in general scientific methodology; The reduction in the number of trials necessary for relearning compared to original learning
3-4
Echoic memory store is about ___-___ seconds.
semantic priming
Effect in which performance of a task is biased by having seen semantically related words or pictures viewed earlier
repetition priming
Effect in which performance of a task is biased by one's having seen the same words or pictures sometime earlier
Higher
Effects of Repetition; Longer lists were found to take more trials to learn than shorter lists, but showed _____ savings upon relearning.
Finkenauer et al. (1998)
Emotional-Intergrative Model of flashbulb memories
Finkenauer et al. (1998) Emotional-Intergrative Model of Flashbulb Memories
Emotions are more complex and involve processes important to creating FBM's. -Suprise directly affects FBM's -Personal to everyone -Intensity and suprise both trigger emotion Study: King of Belgium died: -Participants: 394 French speakers -Questionnaire 7-8 Months later, asking about different factors that affect FBM's. Supports model.
semantic
Encoding in LTM is primarily _____.
Three Key Memory Processes
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
Cohen 1993
Evaluates schema theory, too vague to be useful
Define Absent-Mindedness
Everyday memory failure in remembering information and intended activities, probably caused by insufficient attention or superficial, automatic processing during encoding.
flashbulb memory
Everyone remembers where they were on 9-11 when they heard the news of attacks on the World Trade Center... name for phenomenon...
anatomic dissociation
Evidence that two different tasks are supported by different parts of the brain.
(4) What do the 7 sins of memory tell us about how memory works?
Examples to get you thinking about how to discuss this part of the question include the following: attention's role; emotions' influences; recoding; retrieval cues; past knowledge influencing current encoding; etc.
Loftus & Palmer 1974
Experiment of 150 participants watching car crash film and words like hit or bumped or smashed influenced recall. Then a week later they were called back and asked if they saw broken glass. Those that had the stronger adjective said they saw broken glass. There was no broken glass.
Baddedley & Hitch 1974
Experiment, asked people to read prose whilst understanding its meaning, and at the same time recalling sets of 6 numbers. People took longer if they had to use their memories, but it was significantly shorter if they only had to remember 3 numbers. Suggesting there is more than one 'unitary' store in the short term memory bank.
Sensory Memory
First step of memory storage process. Holds information in your mind for a very brief period time.
100-200
Fixation (time given to focus) takes approximately ___-___ ms.
Brown & Kulik 1977
Flashbulb Memory Theory
Selective attention
Focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others. Constantly working. Stimuli compete for our attention.
(1) Briefly describe the model of episodic memory developed by Tulving.
For this question, we want you to outline the steps for Tulving's episodic memory model. This includes original engrams, coding, recoding, cognitive state, etc. See the link on the modules page for the diagram Dr. Strayer used in his lecture.
Real-World Example of Blocking:
Forgetting someones name
chunking
Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units
(5) What important things does this tell us about the structure of human long-term memory?
H.M. had his hippocampus removed to stop his seizures. Clive had viral encephalitis that destroyed portions of his hippocampus. Drugs can also inhibit LTM encoding—such as Versed which causes conscious sedation. You are conscious during surgery, but post-surgery, you won't remember anything.
Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Assymmetry
HERA Model
Acoustic Similarity
Harder to remember words that sound; This is within our Phonological Loop
William James kind of got the shaft why?
He had a laboratory, but it wasn't a lab.. yeah.
Why is Wilhelm Wundt considered to the the founder of psychology?
He had the first Psych. lab in 1879 and did things to keep psychology going such as: started journals trained students wrote a textbook told universities to make departments
Why do we have this capacity to form mental images? What is it for?
Helps aid memory so we can predict and plan.
How do we Know that there are two types of LTM?
Henry M., Clive Wearing.
What Questions were posed about perception?
How do we gain access to knowledge about the world immediately around us?
What Questions were posed about Memory?
How do we retain knowledge about the world for later use?
Brown & Kulik 1977
How does culture affect FBM, JFK and MLK experiment.
Memory Storage
How is information retained over time and represented in memory.
Means-end analysis
How much effort/money/time do you put in to get maximum benefit?
The renaissance is known to be marked by a rise in humanism; what does this mean?
Humanism emphasizes secular concerns and the individual. (as opposed to religious concerns and the religious community)
spatial imagery
Imagery that emphasizes where objects or parts of objects are locatr3ed. Spatial imagery can be contrasted with visual imagery, which emphasizes how things look.
Sound
In Acoustic Similarity, evidence for phonological code, confusion occurs if words ______ alike: mad, cat, man, map cat
Looking
In Acoustic Similarity, evidence for phonological code, no confusion for similar-______ words: bough, doug, dough, through
Meaning
In Acoustic Similarity, evidence for phonological code, no confusion for similar-______ words: huge, long, tall, big, wide
Central Executive
In Alan Baddely's model of working memory, the component that integrates information from the phonological loop and the visuospatial working memory, as well as material retrieved from long-term memory. This also plays a major role in planning and controlling behavior.
Difficult
In Baddeley's Dual Task Method experiment, he concluded that when the secondary task is very _________, the articulatory loop must borrow some of the central executive's resources.
Selective
In Broadbent's view, attention acts as a _____ filter; regardless of how many competing channels or message there are, the filter can be tuned, or switched, to any of them, based on characteristics such as loudness or pitch
One
In Hemineglect, the patient is unable to direct attention voluntary to _____ side of space, so he or she neglects stimuli on that side.
6
In Moray's Dichotic Listening Task, the unattended channel presented that only ___% of the time did they hear "You may stop now"
33
In Moray's Dichotic Listening Task, the unattended channel presented that only ___% of the time did they hear "[subject's name], you may now stop"
Benefit
In Posner's spatial cuing task, the faster response resulted from the useful advance information was the ______ of the experiment.
Cost
In Posner's spatial cuing task, the response that resulted baseline was because of the misleading clue is a ____ of the experiment.
Attentional
In a visual search, our ______ focus helps us to hold on the organizing principle that is used to identify the target
Proximal
In direct perception, all the information you need is in the _______ stimulus. The stimulus information is unambiguous.
Maxim of Quantity
In making a contribution to the conversation, you should say nothing more nor less than is required., A speaker must not give more or less information than required
E.c Tolman
In opposition to skinner's behaviorism, Tolman enphasized the idea that much of behavior is directed and purposeful
sensitivity
In signal detection theory, a measure of the participant's absolute ability to detect a signal. Sensitivity is measured independently of any bias the participant might have to report or not report signals. Also, the ability of a test to detect memories that are in the storehouse.
Decay
In the Brown-Peterson task results suggest that _______ was the mechanism responsible for forgetting.
Uncondiditoned response
Innate response to meaningful stimulus
Are we born with our fears or do we acquire them through experience?
Innate-Reflexive responses to stimuli Learned-Feelings of fear to stimuli
Limited
Input attention has a ______ mental resource
Phobias
Irrational, extreme fears maybe we acquire them through classical conditioning experiences as well
What made the scientific method new in the Renaissance?
It emphasized observation as a route to knowledge
Define determinism
It is possible to have a complete understanding of human behavior such that I can know what a person will do before he or she does it.
distractors, foil, lures
Items that appear on a visual search experiment trial that are not the target item that the participant is to find. Also used in recognition memory experiments to denote incorrect responses. Synonyms of distractor memory experiments are foil and lure.
Why was William James' introspection different?
James' frowned on dogmatic lab psychology
Who speculated that the crystalline body of the eye functions as a lens does and therefore inverts the image perceived through the eye?
Johannes Kepler (1604) five years before he published the first 2 laws of motion (astronomy)
Which philosopher believed we are all blank slates? ("Tabula Rasa")
John Locke
Who turned Psychology on it's head following Wundt?
John Watson
Unlimited
LTM has an _________ capacity
Distal
Lack of correspondence: perceptual experience DOES NOT correspond to the _______ stimulus. This is illustrated by Zollner Illusion; The Muller-Lyer Illusion; ***Hering Illusion***
Pidgin
Language that may develop when two groups of people with different languages meet. The pidgin has some characteristics of each language, but is not a language in and of itself.
Creating subgoals
Large problems are broken down into manageable steps.
Retrieval
Last step in memory. The process of bringing information out of long-term storage and into conscious awareness.
Long-Term Memory
Last step in the memory storage process in which we can store unlimited amounts of information for a long time.
Cognitive and Biological factors in emotion
Le Doux 1999 Lazarus 1975 Lazarus & Folkman 1984 Lazarus & Folkman 1988 Speisman et al. 1964
Conditioned Response
Learned response to previously neutral stimulus
Observational learning
Learning by watching others
Latent Learning
Learning occurs even when responses are not being reinforced-however, it might not be immediately reflected in behavior. Also called implicit learning.
Temporal; Occiptal; Associative
Left and right hemispheres have cross-hatched regions at the junction of the _____ and _____ lobes, the region is usually damaged in ______ agnosia.
Parietal; Apperceptive
Left and right hemispheres of the brain, _____ agnosia usually is limited to posterior regions of the right hemisphere _____ lobe
Punishment
Less likely to occur (responding negative)
Feature Demons
Level 1 of Pandemonium: Simplest elements of a retinal image and is scanned by ______ ______.
Cognitive Demons
Level 2 of Pandemonium: ______ ______ listen to the feature demons; never see the actual image; "scream" once they have enough evidence
Decision Demons
Level 3 of Pandemonium: ______ ______ choose an output of what information the cognitive demons have given them
Short-term Memory
Limited capacity memory system which stores information for approximately 30 seconds without effort. Also called working memory
Tabula Rasa
Locke
Gricean Maxims
Maxims of communication are cooperative principles that successful conversationalists obey. They are Pragmatic rules that govern language and conversation; Maxim of Quality Maxim of Quantity Maxim of Manner Maxim of Relevance
Unconditioned stimulus
Meaningful stimulus
Retrieval cues
Means by which people retrieve information from long-term memory. The more cues that are associated with memory, the easier it will be to retrieve.
Real-World Example of Absent-Mindedness
Misplacing keys, eyeglasses, or forgetting appointments because at the time of encoding sufficient attention was not paid on what would later need to be recalled.
exemplar model
Model of categorization that maintains that all exemplars are stored in memory, and categorization judgments are made by judging the similarity of the new exemplar to all the old exemplars of a category.
Central Executive
Model suggests that this coordinates the activity of the two helper systems, retrieval strategies, selective attention, suppression of habitual responses
What is the difference between mood and emotion?
Mood: general long-lasting experience Emotion: reaction to a specific stimulus
Reinforcement
More Likely to occur (Responding positive)
Problem Solving
Moving from a given state(problem) to a goal state (solution)
Baddedly & Hitch 1974
Much more complicated than MSM, Working Memory Model: Levels of Processing How we do different types of visual, mathematical, audio and literal memory tasks at once.
Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968
Multi-store Model of Memory, basic architecture
(3) Describe how Neely's research provides support for the roles of automatic spreading activation and limited capacity attention in semantic retrieval.
Neely's research (expected vs. unexpected relations of words/concepts). By linking unrelated concepts (e.g. parts of a building with body parts), Neely was able to measure how well people can link unrelated concepts to each other, and how related concepts (e.g. window->door) can interfere with the newly learned links (e.g. door->arm). Also, Neely showed that attention plays a role in linking unrelated concepts, while minimal attention is required for automatic spreading of previously related concepts.
General Evaluation against Flashbulb Memories
Neisser (1982) - Not encoded differently to normal memories - Longlasting, often talked about and revisited (conversation & media)
Feature Detector
Neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus (Hubel and Wiesel, 1959;1965) In featural analysis and the stimulus broken down into parts and re-assembled to identify it and look for a piece of information
Retroactive Interference
New information interferes with our ability to remember old information.
Are any of the episodes and events that we experience recalled with complete accuracy?
No, Memories are "reconstructions" based solely on sensory input that was successfully encoded and successfully retrieved.
Nondeclarative or Implicit Memory.
Nonconscious memories for skills, procedures, subliminal information, and classically conditioned responses. Memory for "How"
retroactive interference (RI)
Now information that interferes with remembering old information; backwards-acting interference.
Bottom-Up
Object recognition is based on ________ processing is insufficient to explain percetption
(2) What are the five basic assumptions of the model of semantic memory?
Organized as as network Concepts linked together Semantic relatedness Spreading activation between related concepts Activation of one concept partially activates semantically related concepts
Organization (mnemonic strategy)
Organizing items needed to remember by categorizing them.
Active
Our Articulatory Loop is _______ rehearsal
Passive
Our Phonological Store is ________ retention
Plato is to: __________ as Aristotle is to_________. (Dualism/Rationalism/Empiricism)
PLATO: Rationalism ARISTOTLE:Empiricism
dual coding hypothesis
Paivio's proposal that concepts can be encoded verbally, in terms of mental images, or both.
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Part of the WM and used to actively manipulate visual and spatial information. Mental Rotation, boundary extension, and representational momentum
Sternberg Task
Participants first stored a short list of letters, called the memory set, in short-term memory. They then saw a suingle letter, the probe, and responded yes/no depending on twhether the probe item was among the letters in the memory set.
digit span task
Participants hear a list of digits read to them, one digit per second, and must immediately recite the list in the correct order. This task has been used to measure primary memory capacity since the turn of the 20th century.
Selective-attention task
People are intstructed to responf selectively to certain kinds of information
mood-dependent memory?
People are more likely to remember material if their mood at the time of retrieval matches the mood they were in when they originally learned the material
Context Specific Memory
People will recall information better if the context in which the information is learned is the same as when it is being recalled
What are the 3 ways of asking how knowledge is acquired? (First asked by greek philosophes and now by cogn. psychologists)
Perception Memory Nature and Nuture
Autoshaping Examples
Pigions will start to peck at a light that has been paired with food
Rationalism
Plato
Who is the father of rationalism?
Plato
Rationalism is to ______ as Empiricism is to __________ (Socrates, Plato, Galileo, Aristotle).
Plato Aristotle
Eye Movement
Poser concluded from his spatial cuing task that attentional focus that people were switching was a thoroughly cognitive phenomenon, not tied to ___ ______ or other overt behavior. (ex: Visual Search Tasks)
Three step process of problem solving
Preparation production evaluation
Reduces
Presenting stimuli rapidly ______ primacy effects
Produces
Presenting stimuli slowly _______ primacy effects
(6) Provide a description of how have researchers interpreted the primacy and recency effects and the experimental evidence used to support this interpretation.
Primacy effects: can be likened to LTM whereas Recency effects: can be likened to STM Recency (end of list): items that occupy Working Memory and are in that sensory memory Primacy (beginning of list): number of time you can rehearse affects retrieval—if you can't rehearse you won't transfer to LTM Think about: the first items get more time for rehearsal, but the final items haven't had as much time to decay. Distracters prevent rehearsal and keep your STM busy, thereby causing a time delay which causes decay.
(6) How are they obtained and what do they look like?
Primacy it is higher, then a dip to make a "U" and higher with recency
Folkman & Lazarus 1988
Problem focused coping emotion focused coping how you deal with a situation can be different, you can either change the situation or change your outlook on it.
Retrieval-practice effect
Process of trying to retrieve information from long term memory. When it is retrieved, it enhances learning.
image inspection
Processes engaged to better know the visual characteristics of an image
What were some pros and cons of Mechanism?
Pros: we were all machines despite sex/race it made scientists view several parts Cons: parts are multifunctional you can't fix every person using the same tactics (denied individual characteristics)
Proximity
Proximal stimulus doesn't differ based on _______ to the observer, yet we perceive depth
Saccades
Rapid-eye movement observed when the individual is visually tracking a moving stimulus, particularly one meaningful word
What are 2 views on the source of knowledge?
Rationalism and Empiricism
recoding
Re-organizing or modifying information to assist storage in memory
What is the encoding specificity principle?
Recall is better if the retrieval context is similar to the encoding context
(2) Provide evidence supporting the model of semantic memory:
Recall the bird-->robin and bird-->ostrich example and how response times varied between these two experimental conditions.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcement occurs after every target response
Shaping
Rewarding successive approximations of the goal behavior until the goal behavior has been mastered
Define Misattribution
Remembering a fact correctly from past experience but attributing it to an incorrect source of context
nodes
Representation of concepts in hierarchical and spreading activation theories
links
Representation of the relationship between concepts. In the hierarchical model. the links are labeled, whereas in spreading activation from one node to another.
High; Poor
Rods have _____ sensitivity to light, but have _____ acuity.
Rapidly; 30
STM decays fairly _____ in the absence of rehearsal; approximately ___ seconds
peterson and peterson
STM duration. participants show trigram, count backwards in 3s as a distraction for various amounts of time (eg. 3, 12, 18 seconds). asked to recall. 3 seconds- 80% remembered. 18 seconds- less than 10%. this shows if rehearsal prevented then information is lost BUT it could have been due to the counting displacing.
Limited
STM has a _________ capacity
badeley
STM- participants asked to immediately recall words from each catagory in order: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, semantically dissimilar. with STM harder to recall similar sounding words. LTM- 10 words to remember insted of 5 and after an interval of 20 mins. when recalling it was hard to remember semantically similar words. STM acoustic encoding. LTM semantic encoding.
25-100
Saccades (our eye movements) take approximately ___-___ ms to occur.
Talarico & Rubin 2003
Said FMB's are often portrayed with such confidence in the memory, not so much accuracy
Fredrick Bartlett, Jean Piaget
Schema Theory
content-addressable storage
Scheme by which to organize memories in which the content of the memory itself serves as the storage address
addressing system
Scheme to organize memories in which each memory is given a unique address that can be used to look it up.
Edward L. Throrndike
Scientist that first demonstrated the power of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior
Ivan Pavlov
Scientist that systematically studied how we form associations between stimuli (classical conditioning)
250-500
Short-duration memory holds visual information for approximately ___-___.
Partial Reinforcement
Sometimes the target response is reinforced and sometimes it is not reinforced
visual imagery
Sometimes visual imagery refers to any imagery in the visual modality. It also has a more specialized meaning, referring to imagery tasks that emphasize what things look like. Visual imagery can be contrasted with spatial imagery, which emphasizes where things are located.
Distributed-practice effect
Spacing out short time slots of learning instead of one long session. 15 minute study blocks, then a break, then resume.
Maxim of Relation
Speakers should speak to relevant context / what has been said previously.
S factor
Specific intelligence; special gift in a particular area.
working memory
Specific theory of primary memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), it has three parts: a phonological loop, a visuospatial sketchpad, and a central executive. Working memory is proposed to be a workspace for cognitive processes, not simply a short-term storage device.
Partial Report Condition
Sperling's Iconic Memory Duration; the condition in which only part of the visual display is reported
Whole Report Condition
Sperling's Iconic Memory Duration; the condition in which the entire visual display was to be reported
Span of Apprehension
Sperling's Iconic Memory Duration; the number of individual items recallable after any short display
Sensory Memory
Stage 1 of Modal Model - Atkinson, & Shiffrin (1968)
Short Term Memory
Stage 2 of Modal Model - Atkinson, & Shiffrin (1968)
Long Term Memory
Stage 3 of Modal Model - Atkinson, & Shiffrin (1968)
Working Forward
Start at initial state and work to goal state. (Math problems (2+6)/(4*1)=? you complete the math inside the parenthesis first, then divide the quantities to get to the solution)
Working backwards
Start with examples of goal state and evaluate how it was attained.
(1)Use this framework to describe why state dependent learning occurs.
State dependent learning is the effect the cognitive state and cognitive environment has on encoding original engrams. For example, if you learn something while intoxicated you will recall the information if you are in a similar cognitive state (intoxicated).
Inhibit
Stroop created the dual-task situation - we have to _____ natural inclination (reading) to follow task instructions (name the font color of set letters)
What is another name for recognition-by-components theory?
Structural theory
(4) What are the 7 sins of memory?
TAB Moldy Soda Bi-Product: Transience, Absentmindedness, Blocking, Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias and Persistence
T or F: Immanuel Kant believed that mental processes take place in time, but they don't take up any space and therefore can't be measured. Thus, the scientific method could not be applied to mental processes.
TRUE (p.11). People used this argument during the Renaissance as a reason to not study the mind, because what was the point?
T or F: George Berkley argues that even something that feels as natural as the perception of distance actually requires experience.
TRUE. Berkeley was an extreme empiricist. He discussed this idea to emphasize that there are no native, inborn ideas and that everything must be learned.
T or F: Greek philosophers posed questions that insinuated that explanations of events in this world should rely on other events within this world instead of invoking magical or mystical things.
TRUE. For example, Hippocrates proposed that epilepsy was a disease of the body (as other diseases were understood to be), thereby rejecting earlier views that it resulted from direct intervention of god.
T or F: Greek philosophers posed questions that insinuated that the world can be understood and predicted because it works in systematic ways.
TRUE. If events occurred randomly or at the whim of capricious gods, trying to predict events would be hopeless.
T or F: Greek philosophers posed questions that insinuated that we can potentially understand and predict how humans operate.
TRUE. If we can predict other things in this world, why not humans; If humans were completely different from physical objects and animals, we could never hope to predict what people might do or think.
T or F: ALL empiricists agreed that association in time or place was important
TRUE. They were right to emphasize the amount of time and repeating pairings to associate things.
Categorical Perception
The ability to perceive sounds as belonging to different phoneme categories (e.g. that ability to differentiate between /p/ and /b/); speech sounds are continuous, no sharp differentiation from one sound or the other, the actual soundwaves, but we categorize a continuous spectrum of speech sounds
Creativity
The ability to produce valued outcames in a new way
repression
The active forgetting of an episode that would be too painful or threatening to the self to be remembered.
span of apprehension
The amount of information that can enter consciousness at once.
Variable Interval (VI)
The amount of time that must pass before you get
Visual Persistance
The apparent persistence of visual of a visual stimulus beyond its physical duration
7+/- 2
The capacity of STM is _____ items of information in meaningful chunks
Transduction
The changing of physical stimulus into neural energy in light
Episodic Buffer
The components of WM where information form different modalities and sources are bound together. This integrates information from varies sources. "Multidirectional" code. Makes a link between WM and CTM more explicit
proactive interference (PI)
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the retrieval of new information
Where
The dorsal route goes through the parietal cortex which is also the _____ pathway.
Shape
The dorsal route that goes through the parietal cortex and is known as the "where" pathway specializes in _____ perception
recognition failure of recallable words
The effect in which words that were not recognized are nevertheless recalled successfully on a later test.
Le Doux 1999
The emotional brain, Short route from the thalmus to the amygdala, Long route via the neocortex and hippocampus woman walking home seeing a creepy man in an alley
visuo-spatial sketchpad
The first component of working memory; holds and manipulates visual images and spatial information, holds info in an analog spatial form while it is being used
elaboration
The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding .....creating a huge spider web of links between some new information and everything you already know
strength view of memory
The idea that memories vary in how strongly they are represented, and more strongly represented memories are easier to retrieve.
context effects
The idea that memory will be better if the physical environment at encoding matches the physical environment at retrieval
transfer appropriate processing
The idea that memory will be better to the extent that the cognitive processes used at encoding match the cognitive processes used at retrieval
What is the McGurk effect?
The influence of visual information on speech perception
Proximal Stimulus
The input that is created at sensory receptors in our eyes, ears, and fingertips
activation
The level of energy or excitement of a node, indicating that the concept the node represents is more accessible for use by the cognitive system.
concept
The mental representation that allows one to generalize about objects in a category
Variable Ratio (VR)
The number of times that you must make the response before you are reinforced varies from trial to trial
Distractors
The ones you are trying to ignore are ______ that must be eliminated or excluded
phonological store
The part of the phonological loop that can store about 2 s of auditory information.
phonological loop
The part of the working memory model in which auditory information is stored.
source
The source of a memory refers to where and when it was encoded, whether someone told you the information or whether you experienced it directly or just thought about it.
Maxim of Manner
The speaker must be concise and neat in his speech, not opaque or ambiguous
Sensation
The stimulation of sense in organs
Psychophysics
The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experiences
What is Epistemology?
The study of how we know what we know
spontaneous recovery
The sudden uncovering of a memory that was believed to be forgotten.
Instinctive Drift
The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors that may interfere with learning
Define Bias
The tendency for knowledge, beliefs, and feelings to distort recollection of previous experiences and to affect current and future judgments and memory.
Define Suggestibility
The tendency to incorporate information provided by others into your own recollection and memory representation.
Define Transience
The tendency to lose access to information across time, whether through forgetting, interference, or retrieval failure
(6) What are serial position effects?
The tendency to recall earlier words is called the primary effect; the tendency to recall the later words is called the recency effect.
Define Persistence
The tendency to remember facts or events, including traumatic memories, that one would rather forget, that is, failure to forget because of intrusive recollections and rumination.
primacy effect
The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first in a sequence.
recency effect
The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes last in a sequence.
long-term memory
relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amount of information for a long time
Fixed Interval (FI)
There is a set interval of time that must pass before you can make the response and get reinforced
Fixed Ratio (FR)
There is a set number of times that you must make the response before you are reinforced
Fixation
These are pauses during which the eyes are almost stationary on a certain target and then information is taken in. (circles)
Ganglion Cells
These cells collect messages and are passed along to the third level layer of neurons to create the optic nerve
Bipolar Cells
These cells have patterns of neural firing from the rods and cones and are forwarded to the second later of neurons.
Paradoxical
These perceptual constancies have to do with ___________ correspondence: size, color, and shape
Complex Cells
These visual cortex cells respond to edges, movement, and retinal position is NOT important
Hypercomplex Cells
These visual cortex cells respond to specific sizes, heights, widths, gaps, corners, etc.
Concepts are important because
They make our lives faster, easier, and more predictable.
what was the first wave of the study of the mind?
They were considered with the workings of the mind; primarily the acquisition of knowledge.
shallow processing
Thinking about the surface characteristics of stimulus materials ( ie what they look like).
Fovea
This is a highly sensitive area in the retina and is responsible for precision. Mostly made of cones.
Memory Span
This is a number of items we can recite back in order without error 50% of the time
Paradoxical Correspondence
This is an issue for a theory of perception and it is when the proximal and distal stimuli do not correspond, but the representation and distal stimulus do.
Lack of Correspondence
This is an issue for a theory of perception and the representation does not correspond to the distal stimulus. Example: Visual Illusions
Negative Priming
This is another aspect of inhibition; The slower responding to a target when that target was to-be-ignored item on the previous trial
Articulatory Suppression
This is difficult to retain words while simultaneously articulating something (saying "the the the" over and over again). Coming up with way to prevent visual speech input form being phonologically coded
Word Length Effect
This is more difficult to remember a list of long words; This is within our Phonological Loop
Working Memory
This is our STM + simultaneous real-time organization. Explains stuff like problem solving, because STM didn't.
Short Term Store
This is our consciousness in control (when we code, rehearse, organize, and make decisions)
Encoding
This is the act of getting information into memory; the role of attention, and focusing awareness
30
Treisman Filter Theory: ___% of subjects switched channels, following the meaning
Increase; Parallel
Treisman and Gelade examind spotlight attention in visual search and pattern recognition. Because there was no _____ in RT across the display sizes in the disjunction search condition, Treisman and Gelade concluded that visual search for a dimension such as a shape or color occurs in _____ across the entire region of visual attention.
Attentuation
Treisman's ______ Theory: a series of studies to explore slippage (unattended information slipping past the filter in Broadbent's task)
Generate & Test
Trial and error strategy. Create possibilities, test them and discard the ones that are incorrect. (Your car won't start, try again, check the gas, check the battery, etc.) *This may not be the most efficient stategy. (trial and error)
T or F: Watson said "Screw the mind, we can't tell if you are lying"
True (coincides with Kant's beliefs which stunted growth earlier during the Renaissance)
Divided-attention task
Trying to pay attention to two or more simultaneous messages
Classical Conditioning 2
Two Stimuli Bell+Food- Result Bell->Salivation
Classical Conditioning
Two Stimuli- Bell (Neutral)->No response, Food(Meaningful)-> Salivation
procedural memory
Type of memory that changes the way you respond to or do things; it encompasses motor skills learning, classical and emotional conditioning, and priming. It's often contrasted with declarative memory.
(2) Why do typicality effects provide problems for the model and how have researchers modified the original ideas to accommodate typicality effects?
Typicality effects reflect how a robin is a more "typical" bird than an ostrich. When researchers realized that these effects were present, they dropped the economy of representation assumption of the model to accommodate for typicality effects.
Erasure
Under normal viewing conditions, one moment's visual input replaces the previous visual input by means of ____ or "write-over".
(3) Describe how lexical decision tasks have been used to study semantic memory.
Used to test semantic memory networks. These tasks can be determining if a word is an actual word or a non-word. They can also test if two concepts are related, such as doctor--> nurse or doctor-->bread.
Keyword method (mnemonic strategy)
Using a familiar word that sounds or begins similar to a word you want to learn. Then you connect the two to remember it.
generalize
Usually applied to categories, it means to use information gathered from one exemplar to a different exemplar of the same category. For example, if you learn that a specific dog likes to have its stomach rubbed, you may generalize that knowledge to other dogs and assume that ehy too like to have their stomachs rubbed.
Iconic
Visual Sensory Memory is also known as ______ memory
Iconic Sensory memory
Visual sensory memory that lasts about a quarter of a second
Flashbulb Memories
Vivid Memories for highly significant, traumatic, or emotional experiences and events.
Saccades
Voluntary sweeping of eyes from one fixation point to another (lines)
What triggered the need for cognitive Psychology?
WWII advances in physiology/medical equiptment development of the computer
Bartlett 1932
War of the ghosts story, serial reproduction.
Who proposed that the basic unit of behavior might be the conditioned reflex?
Watson
Why does taste aversion learning occur so quickly and last for so long?
We are more biologically prepared to make certain types of associations quickly and permanently
Characteristics of Selective attention
We can only fully attend to one thing at a time, Items compete for our attention (Cocktail party effect) Inattention leads to encoding failure
(1) Use this framework to account for Loftus's research on eye witness testimony.
We don't record memories like a movie, but are able to store bits and pieces.
Inattentional Blindness
We fail to see the objects we are looking at directly even something highly visible because we are not attending to it
Concept Formation
We group objects, events, activities, ideas that share similar characteristics.
Mental Sets
What has worked before
What questions were posed about nature and nurture?
What is the origin of knowledge? Is it innate or learned? or is is it simply remembered?
What was the final straw (or final blow)with behaviorism?
When Skinner attempted to explain language acquisition via behaviorist principles
controlled retrieval
When a person actively tries not to retrieve a declarative memory.
Hierarchies
When an object fits into more than one category. Superordinate-broadest , Mid-level categories- basic level concepts, Subordinate category-most specific.
Erasure
When the contents of visual sensory memory are degraded by subsequent stimuli;the loss of the original information
Word Superiority
When the context of surrounding letters influences how one reads a word (e.g. THE CAT => H and A look different even though both are drawn the same way)
Desirable difficulties
When you create longer breaks when attempting to recall learned information. If you practice over and over in the same time slot, it will seem easy and you may become over confident. If you take several minutes in between learning a new concept, you will start to forget it and it may be harder to retrieve, but will stick better for the long run.
Filtering
When you try to ignore the many stimuli or events around you so you can focus on just one
Who founded experimental psychology
Wilhelm Wundt
who came up with Structuralism?
Wilhelm Wundt
Who was the father of structuralism?
Wilhelm Wundt, founder of experimental psychology 1879 and his student Tichener
Who founded structuralism?
Wilhelm Wundt, structuralism had the goal to describe the structures that comprise thought
Conscious
With repetition and over learning comes the ability to perform automatically what formerly needed _________ processing.
Duration of Short-term Memory
Without effor: around 30 seconds, Effects of rehearsal, effects of distractors.
Content Morpheme
Words that have independent, real world meanings, and might occur in a dictionary. -> aka lexical morphemes -> a morpheme that carries the main semantic and referential content of a sentence -> in English content morphemes are usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs -> have meanings outside the given language
Pickering & Gathercole 2001
Working memory test battery for children (?) found that age 5 to 15 shows the largest improvement in performance of working memory capacity. Also showed that memory problems are often associated with problems in education.
Was it successful?
Yes it was, the damaged areas were removed but he suffered amnesia a couple of years before the surgery so he couldn't remember those years.
(5) Describe the primary symptoms of anterograde amnesia.
You cannot learn new things, but old memories are mostly intact. Remember that individuals with this amnesia usually have working short-term memory (STM), but the encoding to LTM is impaired.
Input
____ Attention: - the basic process of getting sensory information INTO cognition - alertness or arousal - orienting reflex or response - spotlight attention and research this kind of attention is automatic
Controlled
_____ Attention: - selective attention - mental resources and conscious processing - supervisory attentional system
Zoom Lens
_____ _____ is how much information can we attend to at once and how can we constrain attention
Spotlight; Conceptual
_____ attention appears to be rapid, automatic, and perceptual. It is especially influenced by _____ driven processing.
Spotlight
_____ attention is the mental attention-focusing mechanisms that prepares you to encode stimulus information
Distributed
_____ coding is the representation by a pattern of firing across a number of neurons. This theory recognizes complex patterns like faces.
Specificity
_____ coding is the representation of a specific stimulus by firing specifically tuned neurons specialized to just respond to a specific stimulus. This theory recognizes complex patterns like faces.
PET
_____ is a form of neuroimaging used to identify areas of heightened activity during WM tasks.
Mirror
_____ neurons are a class of premotor neurons in the frontal lobe of humans that fires specifically both when performing an action and observing another human performing the same action
Implicit
_____ processing in which there is no necessary involvement of conscious awareness (ex: movement)
Explicit
_____ processing involves conscious processing, conscious awareness that a task is being performed, and usually conscious awareness of the outcome of that performance
Trans-Saccadic
_____-_______ Memory for information across eye movement. This memory is needed to create a complete mental representation. This appears to be based on object files and people attending to individual objects.
Vigilance/Sustained
_____/_____ Attention: maintaining attention for infrequent events over a long period of time (hard to do). This attention can degrade over time
Proactive
______ Interference is when older material interferes forward in time with you recollection of the current item.
Retroactive
_______ Interference is when newer material interferes backward in time with your recollection of older items.
Automatic
_________ processing occurs without conscious awareness or intention and consumes little if any of available mental resources, also very fast .
Conscious
__________ processing occurs with intention and a deliberate decision, and it takes up a lot of mental resources and is open to awareness, also fairly slow.
Language
a communicative system that follows a set of rules (regularity) that operate at different levels 1) Phonological rules (how it sounds) 2) Syntax (sentence structures; how words are combined with one another) 3) Semantics (meaning) 4) Pragmatics (practical aspects, conventions)
episodic buffer
a component of the working memory model of primary memory. It stores information in a multimodal code; that is, that code can represent visual, auditory, or semantic information.
levels of processing
a continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing = better memory
depth of processing
a description of how one thinks about material at encoding. Depth refers to the degree of semantic involvement
Alzheimer's Disease
a disease of older adults that causes dementia as well as progressive memory loss
Means End Analysis
a heuristic; probably most use; combines hillclimbing and subgoals; analyze a difference between the current situation and the desired outcome, then do something to reduce the difference; does not preprint detours from final goal; example: pitcher's strategy with best batter-ultimate goal-to win game and keep batters off the base, a walk the best batter to eliminate more runs; look at end goal and decide the series of steps in order to reach that goal
Working Backward
a heuristic; used when means end analysis strays from goal; begin with goal and work backwards towards the "givens"; used when goal has more information than the givens and when the operations involved work two ways; example: $100 to spend, buy one item and subtract $100 to determine how much is left
Episodic buffer
a limited-capacity system that is capable of binding information from the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop as well as from long-term memory into a unitary episodic representation (integrative)
mnemonic device
a memory aid, such as an abbreviation, rhyme or mental image that helps to remember something
anterograde amnesia
a memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events
flashbulb memory
a memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers the event as vividly as if it were filmed
Linguistic Relativism
a moderate form of linguistic determinism that argues that language exerts a strong influence on perceptions of the people who speak it; (Sapir & Whorfian Hypothesis) your language influences how you think
Was Descartes an empiricist or a nativist?
a nativist
(2) Briefly describe Collins and Quillian's model of semantic memory.
a network of interconnected nodes, which represent concepts.
prime
a node that activates a connected node
positivty effect
a phenomenon showing that people tend to rate previous negative events more positively with the passage of time.
Well-Defined Problem
a problem that has only one correct solution and a certain method for finding it. Example. Your friend has one home address
script
a schema for an event, often containing information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences
Phonological Rules
a set of rules that indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds
autobiographical memory
a special from of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences
Distinctiveness
a stimulus is different than other memories
Recency effect
a tendency for items at the end of a list to be recalled better than items in the middle of a list.
Information-processing approach
a theory of cognition proposing that 1) mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer and 2) information progress through the cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time.
Context and Comprehension
ability to go beyond words and word meanings to understand entire texts; context; how we understand a text as a whole, not word by word
Retrieval
access memory in LTM and place in STM
pegword system
associate each new word with a word on a previously memorized list and form and interactive image between the two words
Process-dissociation model
assumes that implicit and explicit memory both have a role in virtually every response; thus, only one task is needed to measure both these processes
Alzheimer's Disease
atrophy of the cortical tissue is shown in this disease
HERA Model
attempts to account for differences in hemispheric activation for semantic vs. episodic memories
Attention
attend to info in sensory store, it moves to STM
Econ
auditory information held for 2-3s to enable processing
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory, retained for several seconds
Give an example of a fixed action pattern
birds migrating during the winter
Why did behaviorism become the dominate theory of experimental psychology in the 20th century?
because it was something that could be easily proven, tested, and observed. It had more empirical credibility
Sternberg
believed there were 3 different types of intelligence. Triarchic theory of intelligence. Analytical, Creative, Practival.
Principle of Contrast
children's assumption that no two words have the same meaning. Hence they assume that a new word will not refer to something for which they already have a name; words differ from other words, and we use visual cues
The dark ages and middle ages were a bleak time for studying the mind due to what causes?
constant invasions from barbarians rise of christianity feudalism decrease in urbanism etc.
Functional fixednes
conventional uses
Babbling
cooing phonemes of native language; the extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins between 6 and 9 months of age
Central executive
coordinates attentional activities and governs responses (focuses on relevant items and inhibits irrelevant ones); plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, switches attention; updates and checks content to determine next step in sequence of parts
interactive images
create images that link the isolated words in a list
Hippocampus
critical for integration and consolidation, essential for declarative memory
Depth of processing: What is it?
deep, meaningful information processing leads to more permanent retention that shallow sensory processing
repression
defense mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that he or she forgets it and then forgets the act of forgetting
partial report procedure
developed by Sperling to examine iconic memory, it's a procedure whereby participants are shown an array of stimuli (usually letters or numbers) very briefly and then a given a cue telling them which subset of the stimuli to report. This method showed that participant perceive most of the stimuli in a complex array.
acronym
devise a word or expression in which each of its letters stands for a certain other word or concept
self-reference effect
enhance long-term memory by relating the material to your own experiences
acoustic confusion effect
errors in primary memory based on sound. The presence of such errors indicates that participants use an acoustic code in primary memory on the task.
spreading activation
every time an item is studied, you think of items related to that item
Declarative memory
explicit memory
Priming
exposure to a stimulus influences response to a subsequent stimulus
reminders
external memory aids
Partial report procedure
flash a matrix for 50 ms, identify a specific row - participants able to report any row requested
Whole report procedure
flash a matrix for 50 ms, identify as many letters as possible - participants remembered 4 letters
Subsequent refinement
flash a matrix for 50 ms, mark a letter - results indicated up to 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory
Everyone remembers where they were on 9-11 when they heard the news of attacks on the World Trade Center... name for phenomenon...
flashbulb memories
sperling
flashed 3 rows of letters at participants and asked to recall immediately- 4 or 5 letters remembered. each row was flashed with a different pitched tone played for each- participants remembered 9 or 10.
decay
forgetting facts as time passes
motivated forgetting
forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable
acrostic
form a sentence to help memorize the new words
keyword system
form an interactive image that links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word
classical conditioning
form of learning discussed in chapter 6, involves the automatic learning associations between stimuli
What is encoding?
getting information into storage
retrieval?
getting information out of storage
Lexical Processing
i. Words, ability to identify letters in words, but also to get information about those words from memory
Recognition
identification of items that had been presented at an earlier time -ex: multiple choice tests
Nondeclarative memory
implicit memory
Backward visual masking
mental erasure of a stimulus caused by the placement of one stimulus where another had been previously placed (L F E)
Phoneme
in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
Morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)
Language Acquisition Device
in chomsky's theory an innate system that contains a universal grammar or set of rules common to all languages that permits children to understand and speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they have learned enough words; Thmopsky's idea that we have biologically innate mechanism to learn language
Pollyanna Principle
in memory and other cognitive processes, the principle that people usually process pleasant items more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items.
recall task
in memory reserach, a task requiring the participants to reproduce items learned earlier.
Gestalt
in perception and problem solving, an overall quality that transcends the individual elements in the stimulus
Operational definition
in psychology research. a precise definition that specifies exactly how researchers will measure a concept
elaboration
in the levels-of-processing approach to memory, rich processing that emphasizes the meaning of a particular cocept; it also relates the concept to prior knowledge and interconnected concepts already mastered.
Infantile amnesia
inability to recall events of young childhood
Nondeclarative memory
includes procedural skills, priming, conditioning, and nonassociative memory
Declarative memory
includes semantic and episodic memory
decay theory
information is forgotten because of the gradual disappearance, rather than displacement, of the memory trace
visual executive
integrates information from phonological loop and visuospatial working memory, also the long-term memory
What is functionalism?
it moved away from the contents to focus on the function/purpose of consciousness
What were some arguments that opposed Behaviorism and new thoughts that developed?
it was only concerned with consequences creativity was an unknown concept we see the re-emergence of thinking as an important part of human existence behavior is now seen as another mechanism of communication and is representative of cognition disagreement of the 'black box'
negative set
items that were not presented
positive set
items that were presented
What did arguments against behaviorism focus on?
its relative inflexibility, limited validity, and piecemeal explanations
Rotary-Pursuit task
keep stylus on a dot on a rotating disk; after practice, participants find it easy to reproduce if working with the same size disk, but difficult if different size disk is used
Storage
keeping encoded information in memory (processes used to maintain information in memory)
Hypothesis Testing View
kids test out structures of words, combines both environmental and natural acquisition of language
procedural memory?
knowledge about how to do something, think how to make a yummy PB&J
Receptive knowledge
knowledge evoked in response to a stimulus
retroactive interference
later learning interferes with earlier learning.
Kant get in trouble stating that...
mental processes take time but not space, this it CAN'T BE STUDIED, what an a s s hat.
massed practice
learning in which sessions are crammed together in a very short amount of time
distributed practice
learning in which various sessions are spaced over time
Criticisms of LOP
levels are defined as deeper because information is retained better; information is retained better because levels are deeper (circular)
Short term memory
limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as thirty seconds unless we use strategies to retain it longer
retrieval
locating information in memory storage and assessing that information.
nodes
locations of neural activity
amnesia
loss of memory
Antereograde Amnesia
loss of memory for events that occur after the trauma
Retrograde amnesia
loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma
Short-term Store
material remains for about 30 s, information is stored acoustically rather than visually, 7 items ± 2 capacity
Semantic
meaning of the word
elaborative rehearsal
meaningful rehearsal of items to be remembered
Culture-relevant tests
measure skills and knowledge that relate to the cultural experiences of the test-takes
What is behaviorism?
mechanistic, socciation, contents of the mid were irrelevant
Divisions of LTM: What is episodic memory?
memories of events that happen to a person, think episodes
repressed memories
memories pushed into unconsciousness because of the distress they cause
Levels-of-processing Framework
memory does not comprise a specific number of separate stores, rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding
Procedural memory
memory for processes, knowing how to do something
procedural memory
memory for skills
retrograde amnesia
memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events
autobiographical memory
memory of an individual's history
retrospective memory
memory of the past
Sensory memory
memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, nor much longer that the brief time it is exposed to the visual , auditory, and other senses
recall
memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information
Recognition
memory task in which the individual only has to identify learned items ie. multiple choice tests
episodic memory
memory that is associated with a particular time and place, with a this-happened-to-me feeling.
Connectionist Parallel Distributed Processing Model
memory uses a network, meaning comes from patterns of activation across the entire network, supported by priming effects
Left hemisphere
most active in encoding memories and in semantic memory retrieval
Right hemisphere
most active in retrieval of episodic memory
retroactive interference
new memories interfere with the recall of old information
iconic memory
name given to the visual variety of sensory memory
Propositional Complexity
number of propositions in a sentence; the more propositions, the more more difficult to understand a sentence
source-monitoring error
occurs when a person attributes a memory derived from one source to another source
abstract words
one that does not refer to a physical object
Holophrases
one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, whose meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used; exclamatory - want, give
serial processing
operations being done one after another
categorical clustering
organize a list of items into a set of categories
Chunking
organize the input into larger units
semantic memory?
organized knowledge about the world
metacogntion
our ability to think about and control our own processes of thought
Cued recall
participants are given a cue to facilitate recall; sometimes the entails learning paired associates
Explicit Memory
participants engage in conscious recollection
Self-reference effect
participants show very high levels of recall when asked to relate words meaningfully to the participants by determining whether or not the words describe them
brady
participants shown 2500 images then asked to say which ones they had seen when given the option of two (one would have been seen, the other might be similar but not seen before). participants remembered around 90%
Implicit Memory
participants unconsciously recollect information
What was the flaw in the introspection implemented in Wundt's lab?
people were trained on what they should be experiencing
double dissociations
people with different kinds of neuropathological conditions show opposite patterns of deficits
Iconic store
pre-categorical information held for 250 ms, up to 12 items that fade very quickly
schema
preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. Schemas form prior encounters with the environment influence the way we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information
constructive memory
prior experience affects how and what we recall
encoding specificity principal
states that information present as the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue
hypermnesia
process of producing retrieval of memories that seem to have been forgotten
What is consolidation?
process of putting new info into permanent storage
What is associationism?
process of the mind (congruity, similarity, &contrast) proposed by ebbinghaus
Retrieval
processes used to get information back out of memory
Elaboration
processing new information by associating it with other concepts in permanent memory
Recall task
production of a fact, word or other item from memory
Expressive knowledge
productive knowledge
concrete words
refers to a physical object
recency effect
refers to better recall for items at the end of a list
release from proactive interference
refers to the effect in which proactive interference dissipates if one changes the stimulus materials.
obligatory access
refers to the fact that verbal informaiton (but not all sounds) appears to be entered into the phonological loop by its mere presence, even if the participant does not want it to enter.
decay
refers to the hypothesis that forgeting the results (at least in part) from the spontaneous decomposition of memories over time.
decay
refers to the hypothesis that forgetting results (at least in part) from the spontaneous decomposition of memories over time.
metamemory
reflecting on our own memory processes with a view to improving our memory
Self-reference
relation material to your own experience
Prospective memory
remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions
retrospective memory
remembering information form the past
Rehearsal
repeat the information to keep in maintained in STM
Test effect
repeatedly testing oneself tends to improve one's memory and help one overcome overconfidence
maintenance rehearsal
repetitious rehearsal
secondary memory
repository for memories. Contrast with Primary memory.
analog
representation that has important properties of pictures but is not itself a picture. Mental images are usually referred to as analog representation.
serial-position curve
represents the probability of recall of a given word, given its position in a list
Recall
reproduction of items that had been learned earlier -few memory cues -ex: fill-in tests, essay questions
episodic memory
retention of information about where, when, and what of life's happenings- that is, how individuals remember life's episodes
covert practice
silent and hidden practice
construction
similar to the idea of reconstruction. Reconstruction is the process by which memories are recalled. Construction is a particular memory that feels to the participant like a real memory but has no basis in fact.
parallel processing
simultaneous handling of multiple operations
proactive interference
situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material tat was learned later
retroactive interference
situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier
SOA
stimulus onset asynchrony
give an example of a critical period
small window of time when ducklings learn who their mother is
cue
some information from the environment(or that the participant is able to generate) as a starting point for retrieval.
Incubation
some problems require a period in which we allow the most pertinent facts to come into focus, allowing distracting or irrelevent info to fade from our minds.
mnemonist
someone who demonstrates extraordinarily keen memory ability
Phonological
sound combinations associated with the letters (rhyme)
Semantic Memory
stores general world knowledge
free recall
subjects recall the list of items in any order they wish. we often find that people recall items based on their semantic content rather than the item's order in the list. Items at the beginning and end of the list are often recalled with more accuracy than items in the middle of the list.
serial recall
subjects recall the list of items in their original order of presentation.
Why was brain surgery performed on him?
suffered from grand mol seizures
primacy effect
superior recall of items at the beginning of a list
recency effect
superior recall of items at the end of a list
post-identification feedback effect
telling people they made the right choice makes them embrace their choice, telling them they were wrong makes them reject their choice
serial position effect
tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle (consists of primacy effect and recency effect)
prospective memory
the ability to remember a future intention
priming
the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster
central executive
the cognitive supervisor and scheduler, which integrates information from different sources and decides on strategies to be used in tasks and allocates attention.
rehearsal
the conscious repetition of information
practice effects
the effects of rehearsal
encoding
the first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage
Syntax
the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences
reconstruction
the idea that memories are not simply pulled out of the storehouse ; rather, they are interpreted in terms of prior knowledge to reconstruct what probably occurred.
Sensory store
the initial repository of much information that eventually enters the short- and long-term stores
Connectionist Parallel Distributed Processing Model
the key to knowledge representation lies in the connections amoung various nodes stored in memory, not each individual node
Memory
the means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences to use that information in the present (alt. the mechanism we use to create, maintain and retrieve information about the past)
Flashbulb memory
the memory of emotionally significant events tat people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events
retrieval
the memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage
memory span
the number of digitalis an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them
Relearning
the number of trials it takes to learn once again items that were learned in the past
levels-of-processing approach
the observation that recall is generally more accurate when people process information at a deep, meaningful level, rather than a shallow, sensory kind of processing. See also depth-of-processing approach.
depth-of-processing approach
the observation that recall is generally more accurate when people process information at a deep, meaningful level, rather than a shallow, sensory kind of processing.See also levels-of-processing
encoding-specificity principle
the observation that recall is often better if the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time of retrieval.
Overextension
the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning; all pets called "Doggy", all fruits called "orange"
consolidation
the process of integrating new information into stored information
reconstructive memory
the process of putting information together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation
articulatory control process
the process that allows one to enter information into the phonological store; it is literally the process of talking to yourself.
priming effect
the resulting activation of a node
memory
the retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage and retrieval
storage
the retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory
Pragmatics
the rules for the use of language in social context and in conversation or the study of these rules; the study of language use
Cognitive psychology
the scientific study of how people perceive, learn, remember and think about information
Semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
articulatory/phonological loop
the speech and sound related components responsible for rehearsal of verbal information and phonological processing
What is epistemology?
the study of knowledge
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Functional Fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
Gestalt psychology
the theoretical approach emphasizing that: 1) humans actively organize what they see; 2) they see patterns; and 3) the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
interference theory
the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember
Permastore
the very long-term storage of information (names, math, language)
decay theory
theory that states when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trance forms, but over time its trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting
Arbitrariness
there is no inherent connections between a symbol and the concept it represents; there is only an arbitrary connection between sound and meaning (e.g. the word "dog" does not look or sound like an actual dog)
Define a nondeterministic point of view
there is something else that guides our thoughts and determines our actions. Due to free will we cannot determine behaviors perfectly
When was introspection used in wundt's lab?
to study structuralism. typically during something mundane such as a metronome
Encoding
transformation of sensory data into a form of mental representation (processes used to store information in memory)
Iconic memory
visual sensory memory, retained for only 1/4 of a second
method of loci
visualize walking around an area with distinctive landmarks, then link the various landmarks to specific items to be remembered
Physical
visually apparent features of the letters
clive wearing
was a great conductor but got a virus and lost his hippocampus. can't make new long term memories and his short term lasts between 7-30 seconds. procedural memory was not effected but episodic was. hippocampus must control memory transfer from short to long term memory.
Mirror-Tracing task
watch mirror image to trace a figure; after learning, participants become efficient
Who were proponents of Behaviorism?
watson, skinner, and pavlov
At this point in the 20th century where were we in the rationalism-empiricism continuim?
we aired more on the side of empiricism and majorly denied introspection due to our lack of ability to test and prove it
list some problems with behaviorism
we do not learn language because of reward. memorizing lists of words using strategy
Confirmation bias
we see what we want to see
encoding specificity
what is recalled depends on what is encoded
visual code
what it looks like
semantic code
what it means
acoustic code
what it sounds like
interference
when competing information interferes with storing information
context -dependent memory
when people remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it
