Combo with Ch 7 - Memory and 16 others

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Real-World Example of Bias:

A happy adult might look back with fondness on their childhood, induced to do so by positive memories from that time which might not actually be representative of their average mood during their childhood.

permastore

A hypothetical state of memory from which memories are not forgotten.

Backward Masking

A later visual stimulus can drastically affect the perception of an earlier one

Operant Conditing

A learning process in which a behavior becomes associated with a consequence. As a result of this the consequence influences the probability of that behavior occuring again

Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning

A learning process in which two stimuli become associated and cause a change in behavior

inhibition

A mechanism that suppresses unwanted memories that are triggered by a cue. This suppression occurs to keep these competitors from being retrieved instead of the target memory.

Chunk

A memory Unit that consists of several components that are strongly associated with one another.

false memory

A memory of an event that never occurred that the participant nevertheless believes did occur

schema

A memory representation containing general information about an object or an event. It contains information representative of a type or event rather than of a single event.

Explicit Memory Task

A memory task in which participants are instructed to remember some information. Later, recall o.r recognition test requires them to intentionally retrieve that previously learned information

incidental memory test

A memory test in which the participants are not expressly told that their memory will be tested later.

intentional memory test

A memory test in which the participants are told that their memory will be tested later.

rehearsal buffer

A mental recycling system for holding information temporarily, Where short term memory is held and then disappear

What is science?

A method of finding out new things.

modal model

A model composed of the most common features of short-term memory in the early 1970's. The modal model turned ou to be incorrect in many details.

spreading activation model

A model in which memory is conceived of as a network of nodes connected by links, and activation spreads from node to node via the links.

parallel distributed processing (PDF)

A model using a distributed representation with nodes and links. The model learns as weights are modified.

Function Morpheme

A morpheme that, while adding such content as time, mode, individuation, and evidentiality, also serves a grammatical purpose (e.g., the suffixes _s and _er, or the connecting words and or if). See also content morpheme.

working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory adn visual-spatial information, and of information retreived from long-term memory.

short-term memory

A particular theory of primary memory. Short-term memory is usually accorded a duration of 30 s (if the material is not rehearsed) and a capacity of about five chunks of information

Associative Agnosia

A person can combine features into a whole but cannot associate the pattern with meaning

(5) Present evidence that people with anterograde amnesia (like H.M. or Clive Wearing) retain some residual memory ability.

Clive could still play instruments. HM was reluctant to shake the doctors hand because of the hand buzzer, although HM did not "remember" meeting the doctor explicitly)? Performance on the mirror drawing task, etc.

Filter; Auditory

Broadbent proposed a _____ theory of _____ perception that also covered memory, learning, and other more complex topics.

Anderson & Pitchert 1978

Buyer Burglar Experiment, To see if how we process a schema influences encoding and retrieval story with 74 noted points in it, some participants were asked to listen to the story from the pov of a house buyer, and others from the pov of a burglar distracting task then asked to recall then half stayed with their original schema and the other half switched. Those that switched remembered 7% more Results showed that schemas do affect retrieval AND encoding.

Direct Perception

By James Gibson. Environment provides all the necessary information for accurate perception.

Excitation

Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) Level 1 - Node accumulates _____

Inhibitory

Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) Level 2 - Connections can be excitatory or _____ (weights start at 0)

Hierarchically

Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) Level 3 - Excitation and inhibition communicated _____

Parallel

Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) Level 4 - Activity occurs in _____ multiple stimuli at one time

Interactive Activation Theory

Connection Model of Word Perception (McClelland & Rummelhart, 1981) is a model of what theory?

Phonological Code

Conrad (1964) suggested that verbal information is represented on how it sounds

Declarative or Explicit Memory

Conscious memories for people, places, events, facts, dates, feelings, and explanations. Memory for who, what, where, when, and why.

Context->Behavior->Consequence

Consequences serve to strenghten or weaken the "box-lever" connection

Physical

Dichotic Listening: If _____ changes (e.g., frequency, loudness, etc) are noticed, then features are processed before attentional selection

Semantic

Dichotic Listening: If ______ changes (e.g., language change) are noticed, then information is categorized before attentional selection

If we acquire phobias through classical conditioning then how might we get rid of a phobia?

Extinction training, systematic desensitaztion, Flooding

B.F. Skinner

Extremely Influential scientist associated with further defining operant conditioning and using it to modify and control behavior.

Loftus & Palmer 1974

Eye witness testimony, Leading questions can influence recall, 45 participants Experiment of participants watching car crash film and words like hit or bumped or smashed influenced recall

T or F: Behaviorism seeks to explain behavior, thought and consciousness.

FALSE it seeks to only explain behavior

T or F: Watson sought to find the basic building blocks of consciousness.

FALSE. He sought to find the basic building blocks of BEHAVIOR

T or F: Behaviorists still used metronomes to perform introspection.

FALSE: Behaviorists don't use introspection it is not a visible behavior and cannot be proved wrong

T or F: Nativists were also associationists.

FALSE: EMPIRICISTS were associationists. Complex ideas are a combination of simpler ideas such as democracy.

Appetitive Consequences

Good things, such as food

Dr. Alfred Binet

French psychologist who invented the first intelligence test

The word "and" is what type of morpheme?

Function

How are functionalism and structuralism different?

Functionalism emphasizes mental processes while structuralism emphasized structures.

So, William James became inspired by evolutionary theory and came up with what?

Functionalism, the function of mental processes (emphasis was not a on mental structures)

Natural Languages show the following:

General Productivity (the ability to adapt and build upon), arbitrariness (words can be symbolic, meaning they do not sound or look like the object they are describing), and dynamic (always changing)

Intelligence

General capacity to benefit from experience to acquire knowledge and adapt to changes in the environment

G factor

General intelligence; ability to reason and problem solve

semantic memory

General term referring to sensory buffers that can hold much information, but only for a second or so.

sensory memory

General term referring to sensory buffers that can hold much information, but only for a second or so.

Production

Generate solutions or hypotheses. 2 ways to do this, Algorithms, heuristics.

Convergent thinking

Generating a single idea/theme/conclusion based on many ideas or pieces of information.

Speisman et al. 1964

Genetal Surgery, showed participants a film containing unpleasant genital surgery with different soundtracks to see what emotional response they could evoke. -intellectual -traumatic -ritual Relate to LeDoux

primary memory

Hypothetical buffer in which information may be held briefly. Contrast with secondary memory.

1/2

Iconic memory store is about ___ seconds.

Preparation

Identifying given facts and separating relevant information from irrelevant information. Define your ultimate goal.

Law of effect

If a behavior is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it wil tend to be repeated. If a behavior is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend to not be repeated

Holmes et al. 2008

Investigated the relationship between the visuospatical sketchpad and mathmatic performance in 7-8 and 9-10 year olds. found that if you have a large visuospatical sketchpad capacity you were often better at mathematics.

Who suggested that both rationalism and empiricism had their place in the quest for knowledge?

Kant (<- seriously, what didn't Emmanual Kant do?

Who suggested that both empiricism and rationalism had their places in the pursuit of knowledge?

Kant, Rational through helps to organize our experiences.

release from PI

Occurs when the decline in performance caused by proactive interference is reversed because of a switch in the to-be-remembered stimuli

Seemantic

Memory about the world. General common knowledge.

declarative memory

Memory for cats and events, often contrasted with procedural memory.

Episodic

Memory for events in your life. Autobiographical memory

Word Superiority Effect

Memory for letters is best when those letters appear in the context of a word rather than a non-word. (ambiguous letters)

mood congruence?

Memory is better when the material to be learned is similar with the person's current mood. -Good mood: easier to learn nice items -Bad mood: easier to learn nastier items

Bartlett 1932

Memory is reconstructive, it is reconstruced by the schemas that influence recall

Dual-code hypothesis

Memory is stored in two ways: verbal code and picture code. Mental images are remembered better because it contains both picture and verbal codes.

Holmes & Holmberg 1994

Men who were experiencing marital problems reported previously positive emotional memories than they initally said, suggesting that Flashbulb memories can be altered emotionally.

Priming

Mental activation that can spread from one concept to another. We're connecting things. Similar to the game iAssociate.

Cognition

Mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information. Organizing, Understanding, and Communicating information.

Concepts

Mental representation of a group or a category.

Mental Imagery

Mental representations that "stand in" for objects of events. They have a "picture-like" quality in our mind's eye.

recognition test

Method of testing memory in which the experimenter presents the participants with the to be remembered material, along with other material that was not initially encoded (distractors). The participant must select the to be remembered items from among these other items.

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with our ability to remember new information

intrusions

On a memory test, material that is appropriate to another context is inappropriately produced as a response in the wrong context.

Divergent Thinking

One main theme or idea that generates many different ideas

Prepares; About

One role of is attention is - Attention _____ us for what we are ______ to perceive

Select

One role of is attention is - Attention allows us to _____ some aspects of a scene while ignoring others

Bind

One role of is attention is - Attention helps us to _____ information together to create a unified perceptual experience

Why cant we always retrieve everything that is stored in long-term memory, especially older memories?

One theory...interference

Algorithms

Step by step procedure that, if appropriate, will always result in the solution.

Process Model

Sternberg's study used this kind of model; this was a stage model that was designed to explain the mental steps involving performance of a task, usually implying the stages occurred in order

Stimulus Generalization

Stimuli that are similar to the CS will also elicit the conditioned response to some degree

Conditioned Stimulus

Stimulus that starts out neutral

Conditioning Procedure

Stimulus1+Stimulus 2 Stimulus 1->Response

Define Blocking

Temporary retrieval failure or loss of access, such as the tip-of-the-tongue state, in either episodic or semantic memory.

Reduces

Test memory after a short delay following the last stimuli on the list _______ recency effects

Produces

Test memory immediately after last stimulus on list _______ recency effects

The renaissance brought back 2/3 greek philosophers assumptions. Which assumption was difficult to grasp?

That humans are not special (Predictability)

Elaboration

The "web" of connections, associations, and relevant meanings given to a stimulus

Distal Stimulus

The _____ _____ is the source of sensory stimulation

Size

The _____ of the suffix effect varies depending on what people understand a sound to be.

Ventral; Temporal

The _____ route is (P) parvocellular pathway ---> V1 ---> V4 ---> _____ cortex

Proximal Stimulus

The ______ _____ is the impression that the stimulation leaves our sensory receptors

Suffix

The ______ effect is poorer memory for a serious of items if there is an additional sound at the end of the list

Dorsal; Parietal

The ______ route is (M) magnocellular pathway --->V1 ---> MT (V5) ---> _____ cortex

Attention

The ability to hold rules in mind and actively use rules to organize information; a higher-order property of thought

picture theory of imagery

The experience of visual imagery is created by activating a memory representation. This memory representation was created by viewing objects in the real world.

(3) What basic mechanism is thought to underlie semantic priming effects?

The facilitation of later processing of a stimulus by previous exposure to the stimulus.

typicality

The fact that some members of a category are viewed as better exemplars than others.

word length effect

The finding that participants can remember more words if the words can be said quickly

default value

a characteristic that is a part of a schema that is assumed to be true in the absence of other information. For example unless one is told otherwise, one assumes that a dog is furry, furriness is a default characteristic for dogs.

cognitive economy

The principle of designing a cognitive system in a way that conserves resources (memory storage space)

Occam's razor

The principle that parsimony is important in evaluation scientific theories. Specifically, if two theories account for data equally well, the simpler theory is to be preferred.

Memory

The process by which we observe, store, and recall information

Memory

The retention of information or experiences of time

Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

The theory that states memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short -term memory, and long-term memory

Underextension

The use of a word to denote a smaller class of items than is appropriate; for example, referring only to one particular animal as a dog; may call their pet "Doggy", but not other dogs

What

The ventral route goes through the temporal cortex which is also the _____ pathway.

Spatial

The ventral route that goes through the temporal cortex and is known as the "what" pathway specializes in _____ perception

classical view of categorization

The view that concepts are represented as lists of necessary and sufficient properties.

Manipulates

The visuospatial sketchpad stores and _________ visual-spatial information

Perception

The way we select, organize, and interpret sensory input

decay

The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time. Idea which is widely discredited...forgetting is more likely caused by interference or by a combination of the two (decay+interference)

hierarchical theory

Theory of memory organization in which concepts are organized in a taxonomic hierarchy and characteristic properties are stored at each level.

Retina

This is the layer of the eye that is covered with rods and cones. It motivates the process of visual sensation and perception.

Chunking

This is used because of the capacity limits in our STM and it is a way of combining small bits of info into larger bits

Echoic Memory

This kind of memory is auditory

Iconic Memory

This kind of memory is visual

Auditory Sensory

This memory is also known as echoic memory; it's fresh and lasts about 4 seconds

Constructivism

This perception uses data from the world and prior knowledge and our expectations. Information is often ambiguous. Example: Necker Cube

Flanker Task

This task is when you see 4 letters together and you raise your left hand if the middle letter is 'S' and raise your right hand if letter in the middle is 'H'

Who proposed the 'law of effect'?

Thorndike

rehearse

To practice material in an effort to memorize it

Does autoshaping happen in people?

To some extent, yes how about $$$

tip-of- the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

a type of effortful retrieval that occurs when we are confident that we know something but can not quite pull it out of memory

serial position curve

a u-shape pattern indicating the tendency to recall more items from the beginning and end of a list than from the middle

chunk

a unit of knowledge that can be decomposed into smaller units of knowledge. Similarly, smaller units of knowledge can be combined ("chunked") into a single unit of knowledge.

Principle of Conventionality

a word learning bias that the child uses in word learning; it states that there are culturally agreed-upon names for things and these do not change; society determines word meanings

expertise

after doing something every day for 10 years, you probably have this

self-terminating

after the target is found, the search stops

explicit memory

aka declarative memory, the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated........information is transmitted from the hippocampus to the frontal lobes

Implicit memory

aka non-declarative memory, memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience

connectionism

aka parallel distributed processing, the theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory

Sustained attention

aka vigilance, the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time

exhaustive processing

all items in a set are examined

overt practice

aloud and obvious practice

Speech acts

an action carried out through language, such as promising, lying, and greeting; a) Representative: tells current state of affairs, give information "the coat is red" b) Expressive: shares emotions "I feel" c) Declaration: statement that changes the situation "now we are going to move on and go to our next class" d) Directive: tells someone what to do e) Commissive: you commit to do something in the future "I'm going to"

Behaviorism

an approach to psychology that focuses on objective, observable reactions to stimuli in the environment.

mask

an array of tiny random black and white squares or a stimulus of randomly oriented squiggles and lines. A mask is used to knock another stimulus out of iconic memory. Mask can also be used as a a verb ("The second stimulus masked the first")

Introspection

an early approach to studying mental activity, in which carefully trained observers systematically analyzed their own sensations and reported them as objectively as possible, under standardized conditions.

recognition task

an explicit memory task that requires participants to identify which items on a list had been presented at an earlier time.

Long-term Potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Mnemonic definition

any tool that helps someone remember

mnemonic

any tool that helps someone remember

Cooing

around 2 months, babies begin to make vowel-like noises, because of their pleasant "oo" quality; first stage of language, babies coo vowels - cooing also tends to include universal phonemes; not limited by phonemes in baby's particular native laguage; at 8 months, babies lose ability to coo phonemes that are not part of their own language

What is Empiricism?

asserts that knowledge can only be obtained through EXPERIENCE, reality is in the world.

Le Doux

"Arrousal of emotion can facillitate memory of events. May not always be accurate"

Brown & Kulik's Photographic Theory (1997)

'when extreme emotion is associated with an event it triggers neutral mechanisms and vivid details are remembered. (camera flash) -Aim: to see how your culture affects the way you remember things. -Participants: 80 black and white -Procedures: asked about how they felt about JKF and MLK -Findings: They found that those that were of the same ethnicity of JFK remembered more and in better detail of him. -Shock is an important factor.

Real-World Example of Suggestibility:

A person sees a crime being committed by a redheaded man. After reading in the newspaper that the crime was committed by a brown-haired man, the witness "remembers" a brown-haired man instead of a redheaded man.

Real-World Example of Misattribution

A person who witnesses a murder after watching a television program may incorrectly blame the murder on someone she saw on the television program

McGurk Effect

A phenomenon in which visual information influences speech perception, when individuals integrate both visual and auditory information.

epiphenomenon

A phenomenon that is not related to the function of a system. Some researchers argues that images are an epiphenomenon; the sensation of "seeing" an image is real, but that doesn't mean that the sensation has anything to do with the actual cognitive task being performed.

Creole

A pidgin language that evolves to the point at which it becomes the primary language of the people who speak it.

Ill-Defined Problem

A problem in which the desired goal is unclear, information needed to solve the problem is missing, and/or several possible solutions to the problem exist.

Data-Driven Processing

A process driven by the stimulus pattern, the incoming data. It is bottom-up processing.

Conceptually-Driven Processing

A process of context and higher knowledge influence lower-level processes. It is top-down processing.

Top-Down Processing

A process which information is driven by our prior knowledge and our expectations.

Bottom-Up Processing

A process which information is driven by stimulus data only. Direct perception is an example of this.

graceful degradation

A property of a model (of memory or of another cognitive process), whereby if the model is partially damaged it is able to continue functioning, although not as accurately. The human brain often shows graceful degradation; if it is damaged, cognitive processes are often compromised but can still partially function.

prototypes

A prototype has all the features that are characteristic of a category.

Applied Behavior Analysis

A psychotherapy technique that uses direct application of rewards and punishments to change maladaptive behaviors in humans

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or mental process resulting from practice or experience

distributed representation

A representation scheme in which a concept is distributed across multiple units

local representation

A representational scheme in which a concept has a single location

elaboration

concentrate on the specific meaning of a particular concept; you'll also try to relate this concept to your prior knowledge and to interconnected concepts that you have already mastered

Divided attention

concentration on more than one activity at the same time

long-term potentiation

concept states that if two neurons are activated at the same time, the connection between the, and the memory, may be strengthened

Hypothetical constructs

concepts that are not themselves directly measureable or observable but that serve as mental models for understanding how a psychological phenomenon works

Maxim of Quality

concerns telling the truth and making only assertions that you can support with credible evidence

What is Dualism and who fathered it?

introspection was the way to gain knowledge;Descartes

spreading activation

involves the parallel activation of multiple links (priming) among nodes within the network

part of the brain involved in consolidating long term memories

hippocampus

storage?

holding information

Working Memory

holds only the most recently activated portion of long-term memory and moves these activated elements into and out of brief, temporary memory storage

emotion

is a brief psychological reaction to a specific stimulus. Is often short in nature and directed instead of general.

amnesia

is a severe gap in an individuals episodic memory.

What is Structuralism?

A school of thought focused on determining the contents of the mind, through introspection

Serial Exhaustive Search

A search process in which all possible elements are searched by one before the decision is made, even if the target is found early

cued recall

A way of testing memory in which the experimenter provides the participant the time and place in which the memory was encoded, as well as some hunt abut the content of the to be remembered material.

savings in relearning

A way of testing memory in which the participant learns some material (a list of words) to a criterion (can recite the list twice without error). After a delay, the participant must relearn the list to criterion again. If the participant must relearn the list to criterion again. If the participant can reach criterion in fewer trials the second time, he or she has shown savings in relearning.

Where Renaissance philosophers concerned with: A) origin of knowledge or B) explain the workings of the mind.

A); they addressed questions of memory and perception as part of that issue

mood

is an emotional state that is longer lasting than emotions and tend to be more general in nature. However, both mood and emotion share the characterisitc that they are caused by a specific stimulus.

mood congruence

is the ability to recall information better if you are in the same mood as when you learned the information. (If you are happy when you learn something, chances are you will remember it better if you are happy upon recall.

encoding

is the initial acquisition of information. During encoding, one presesses and represents this information in memory.

autobiographical memory

is the memory for events and issues that are related to yourself. (Think about them as your internal autobiography)

episodic memory

is the memory of autobiographical events such times, places, associated emotions that can be explicitly stated and recalled.

What is Rationalism?

it asserts that knowledge can only be obtained through INTROSPECTION, reality is in the abstract concept.

proactive interference

old memories interfere with the recall of new information

distinctiveness

one memory trace should be different from all other memory traces

General Productivity

the ability in language to adapt and build upon previous structures

deep processing

thinking about the meaning of stimulus materials at encoding

hindsight bias

thinking you knew something in retrospect

Working memory

three part system that allows us to hold information temporarily as we preform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to help us understand, make decisions, and solve problems

Long-term Store

thus far limitless capacity, potentially permanent duration

Surface Form

verbatim mental representation of the exact words used, as well as the syntax of the sentences read or heard; sentence structure

Long-term store

very large capacity, capable of storing information for very long periods

What could he learn?

•Could store 5-9 digits •Could learn some things -Habituation: getting used to something -Classical conditioning -Operant conditioning -Skills

What does H.M.'s case suggest about memory?

•There's a difference between short term and long term storage •Long term storage has several aspects -General knowledge, life memories -Skills, predispositions, reflex learning •Different types of memories are involved with different parts of the brain

How was his memory affected?

Could not put new info into LTM

What could he not learn?

Could not put new info into LTM

Mental Imagery

Creating a mental "story" or scene around stimuli that we would like to remember

Neisser

Criticised Brown & Kulik 1977 with It could just be 'serial reproduction' Bartlett 1932 War of the Ghosts.

Yuille & Cutshall 1986

Criticised Loftus & Palmer for lack of ecological validity. Did the same experiment in a real life situation and found recall was very good, more affected by distance from the event than leading questions.

Richard Castillo 1997

Cultural Schemas, when a cultural group create schemas based on a 'higher reality', eg giving an object more meaning than it posseses. The fact that it is a cultural schema reify's it for you.

Two Types of Long-term memory

Declarative or explicit memory, Nondeclarative or implicit memory.

Time

In the Brown-Peterson task results, forgetting was due to passage of _____.

Decreased; Increased

In the Brown-Peterson task results, memory accuracy _______ quickly as recall interval _______.

Inhibit

In the Flaker Task, attention can actively ______ or suppress irrelevant information so that its activation level is below baseline

Automatic

In the Stroop Effect, controlled processing takes mental effort, but becomes ______ as the skill is learned (Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977)

Cones and Rods

In the eye, there is transduction in 2 cells in the retina, they are known as the _______ and ______.

tacit knowledge

In the imagery debate, tacit knowledge is a participants' knowledge of how objects in the real world move. It was suggested by some that participants used this tacit knowledge to simulate real-world movement and thereby produce results in imagery experiments that match real-world phenomena.

Lower

In visual presentation there is ______ accuracy with suppression

Without

In visual presentation, acoustic similarity effect _____ with suppression

False memories

Inaccuracies and distortions of our reconstructed memories that occur over time.

Which parts of his brain were removed?

Included hippocampus and adjacent areas

Apperceptive Agnosia

Individual features cannot be integrated into a whole; a basic disruption in perceiving patterns

Eysneck 1988

Individual intelligence and learning differences may depend on working memory differences.

Three types of Amnesia

Infantile, retrograde, anterograde

context

Information about the time and place in which a memory was encoded.

Short Term Memory

Information from our Sensory Memory that is being attended to will enter into our _____ _____ _____

Brown & Kulik 1997, Theory:

Photographic Theory

Visual;

Posner's spatial cuing task: worked on _____ attention focus.

Early

Selective attention can occur very _____ in processing, based on very low-level, physical characteristics, as Broadbent proposed

Encoding Processes

Selective attention, Levels of processing, Elaboration, Mental Imagery

Pandemonium

Selfridge's model of _______ was an early indicator of feature detection and a model of pattern recognition. There are three levels.

Large; Short

Sensory Memory has a ______ capacity and ______ duration.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory

Sensory Memory, Sort-term memory, Long-term memory.

Distal Stimulus

Sensory input of sight of tree, sound of falling, texture of objects, etc.

Blocks to Problem Solving

Set Effects: Starting assumptions about what types of strategies are likely to be effective, but if it isn't right, it becomes an issue. Help define ill-defined problems, giving necessary constraints and reducing search space, but they can result in ignoring relevant opinions. Functional Fixedness: The tendency to be rigid about how one thinks of an object's function; not having appropriate information

Sandra Bem 1998

Sex role inventory, said that when people were given a sex type they remembered more 48 male, 48 female 61 random words at 3 seconds Recalled, same amount just in a different order. We use different groupings

Levels of Processing levels

Shallow-physical features are analyzed, Intermediate-recognition and labeling Deep-meaningful characteristics

Phonological loop

briefly holds inner speech for verbal comprehension and for acoustic rehearsal

Visuospatial sketchpad

briefly holds some visual images

phonological loop

briefly store speech-based information about the sounds of language

How did Wundt study structuralism?

by using introspection, a method of study in which people tried to follow their own thought processes.

Short-term store

capable of storing limited information for somewhat longer periods

Sensory store

capable of storing relatively limited amounts of information for very brief periods

miller

capacity. in short term memory you can store 7 chunks of information. miller looked at psychological research and saw that things come in 7s.

proactive interference

earlier learning interferes with new learning

Telegraphic Speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words. "I want"

reminiscence bump

effect that adults remember more events from the second and third decades of life than form other decades

Slips of the Tongue

overt cases of misspeaking which are also clues to the processes of speech production

semantic memory

person's knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school; and everyday knowledge

forcing functions

physical constraints that prevent us from acting without considering the key information to be remembered

What is the Pollyanna principle?

pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and accurately than less pleasant items

retention-delay test

reading rate determines recall performance (intelligence measure) to measure working memory

Free recall

recall all items in any order you choose

Serial recall

recall all items in the exact order in which they were presented

primacy effect

recalling items at the beginning of list

Reasoning by Analogy

see a problem with a similar structure, then use knowledge of previous problem to solve new problem

Recognition task

selection or otherwise identification of an item as being one that one has been previously exposed to

Episodic Memory

stores personally experienced events or episodes

Visuospatial working memory

stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery

Serial

A _____ search has elements with similar features, it's time consuming, and each element must be examined to find a target

Total-time hypothesis

Amount of time devoted to actively learning.

Why are flashbulb memories so easy to encode and seem to be so vivid?

Amygdala working with the hippocampus.

For context to have an effect:

(1) type of task matters (recognition vs. recall) (2) other learning cues should be weak (3) bigger effect on older memories

Time between stimulus and the target

(100 ms, 500ms, 1s)

serial exhaustive search

(Sternberg) The memory set is scanned one item at a time (serial), and the entire set is scanned on every trail, whether or not a match is found (exhaustive).

elaborative rehearsal?

(same as elaboration) processing new information by associating it with other concepts in permanent memory

glanzer and cunitz

(smiley face graph) gave participants a list of words and asked to recall. group 1 had to recall straight away. group 2 had to count backwards for 30 seconds and then recall. Serial Positition Curve. counting backwards diplaced last few words (Recency Effect)

Finkenauer et al. (1998) Emotional-Intergrative Model of Flashbulb Memories: Evaluation.

- Cultural Bias - Longditudinal study (Reliability) - Not Reductionistic (Detailed questions)

semantic network

Name given to all the nods and links in a spreading activation model

echoic memory

Name given to the auditory variety of sensory memory.

Combination

Need _____ of top-down and bottom-up processing to account for context effects, biases, experiences, etc.

shallow quality of a word

- visual appearance of the word -sound of a word

What is the classic test of depth of processing?

-Ask the subjects yes/no questions about words •Force shallow or deep processing •Then flash the word on a screen •Later, the subjects are tested for recall of the words Not told they would be tested -Results: •Remembered the fill-in words better than the physical characteristic words

Evaluate two models of memory

-Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968 -Baddedly & Hitch 1974 -Baddedly & Hitch 1974 -Pickering & Gathercole 2001 -Holmes et al. 2008 -Eysneck 1988

To what extent is one cognitive process reliable? (Reconstructed memory)

-Bartlett 1932 -Bartlett 1932 -Loftus & Palmer 1974 -Loftus & Palmer 1974 -Yuille & Cutshall 1986

Evaluate one theory of how emotion affects one cognitive process (Flashbulb Memory)

-Brown & Kulik 1977 -Brown & Kulik 1977 -Neisser -Neisser & Harsch 1992 -Talarico & Rubin 2003 -Holmes & Holmberg 1994

Why make these distinctions?

-Different types of memories have different characteristics -Different brain injuries can affect different types of memories

Evaluate Schema Theory

-Fredrick Bartlett, Jean Piaget -Anderson & Pitchert 1978 -Sandra Bem 1998 -Richard Castillo 1997 -Cohen 1993

Brown & Kukik's Photographic Theory (1997) Evaluation

-Low sample size -Reductionistic -Cultural Bias (Ethnocentric) -Historical Bias -Ecologically Valid -Ethical Conway (1995) did the same but with Margret Thatcher & UK students. Therefore must be events of great personal significance. McClockskey et al. (1988) -Longditudinal Study -Initially asked about memories of the Challenger explosion (just after incident) - Then asked again 9 months later -Findings: not as accurate, some discrepancies.

How was depth of processing tested with pictures of faces?

-Subjects were shown many photos of subjects -Asked to make judgments about either • Width of the nose • Honesty of the person -Later asked to identify which faces they had seen

Why does it occur?

-The self has a rich set of cues • Allows for elaboration and distinctiveness • We have a complex network about ourselves -Instructions encourage people to see how their traits are related to one another • More cues, easier to retrieve -We may rehearse material more if it is related to us • Elaborative rehearsal

What is the self-referential effect?

-enhancement of long term memory by relating material to personal experiences -People recall more adjectives that they say apply to them than adjectives they say don't apply

deep quality of a word

-meaning of the word

What is maintenance rehearsal?

-repeating a stimulus •less likely to be permanently stored than with elaborative rehearsal

Depth of processing: What is it?

...

Which type of rehearsal is most efficient for getting information into LTM?

...

chunking

...

regency effect

...

What are the assumptions made by cognitive psychologists?

1) the world can be understood and predicted because it is SYSTEMATIC (Determinism) 2) Humans are part of this world and can be understood in the same way (this gets "lost" during the dark ages) 3) Explanations should be grounded in events in the world rather than magic (positivism/ logical positivism) 4) Mechanism (descartes) 5) reductionism (Physics) 6) Construction/Representation

Why memory is better for deep words

1. Distinctiveness 2. Elaboration

retrieval-induced forgetting

The phenomenon whereby retrieving some memories makes you forget other, related memories.

Heuristics

A "rule of thumb" or educated guess

What are three assumptions that GREEK PHILOSOPHERS made?

1.) The world can be understood and predicted because it works in systematic ways. 2.) We can potentially understand and predict how humans operate. 3.) Explanations of events in this world should rely on other events within this world instead of invoking magical or mystical things.

What two types of assumptions are usually made when we study the mind?

1.) What it is that needs to be explained. 2.) The beliefs that influence the questions we pose when we study something.,

What were Watson's 4 principles of behaviorism?

1.)Psychologists should focus only on that which is observable 2.) Psychologists should explain behavior ONLY 3.) Theories should be as simple as possible 4.) Find the basic building blocks of BEHAVIOR

When did Behaviorism begin to receive scrutiny?

1950's

Brown & Kulik

1997

Encoding

1st step, The process of taking information in through your senses and translating it into a form that your brain can "write down" and store for later use

HM

27 years old and suffered severe epilepsy. cut out hippocampus. episodic and semantic memory damaged.couldnt remember anything after operation. could still learn procedural things eg tennis.

Parallel

A _____ search has elements that are different from each other, they are easier because they are organized, and target unique for at least one feature pop-out effect

Gardner

9 types of intelligence-Verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist.

Attentional Blink

A brief slow-down in mental processing due to having processed another very recent event. This is approximately .13 seconds.

visuospatial sketchpad

A buffer on which visual or spatial information can be manipulated and briefly stored. It is believed to be similar to and perhaps synonymous with visual imagery.

property inheritance

A characteristic of some models of categorization; concepts inherit properties from the concepts that are higher in the hierarchy.

default values

A characteristic that is part of a schema that is assumed to be true in the absence of other information. For example, unless one is told otherwise, one assumes that a dog is furry; furriness is a default characteristic for dogs.

The Phonological Loop

A component of WM and is responsible or 'recycling' verbal material. Has two subcomponents: Phonological Store and Articulatory Loop

Central Executive

A component of WM; the head 'boss' of the system

Levels of Processing

A continuum of memory processing ranging from shallow processing to deep processing. Deep processing leads to better memory.

Agnosia

A deficit in recognizing objects, either because feature patterns cannot be synthesized into a whole or the person cannot then connect a pattern to meaning

hemispatial neglect

A deficit of attention cause by brain damage in which a patient ignores the half of the visual world opposite the brain damage.

Reverse

A disadvantage of automaticity is that it is difficult to ________ the effects of practice in an automated task

More

A disadvantage of automaticity is that our mental processes become _____ automatic as a function of practice and over learning

Action Slips

A disadvantage of automaticity is that we can have ______ ______, which are unintended, and often automatic actions that are unnecessary for that given situation.

Hemineglect; Left

A disorder of attention when there is a disruption or decreased ability to attend to something and typically affected in the _____ visual field.

Prosopagnosia

A disruption in face recognition

Change Blindness

A failure to notice the change in a visual stimuli (photographs) when those changes occur during a saccade (sweeping)

Feature Analysis

A feature, in this approach, is a pattern, a fragment or component that can appear in combination with other features across a wide variety of stimulus patterns

levels of processing framework

A framework for understanding memory that proposes that the most important factor determining whether something will be possible whether something will be remembered is the depth of processing.

category

A group of objects that have something in common.

Working Memory Span

A growing body of evidence suggests that people differ in WM capabilities, and that these are related to various cognitive processes

Brown-Peterson Task

A simple three-letter stimulus was presented to the subject, followed by a three-digit number. Subjects were instructed firt to attend to the stimulus, then to begin counting backward by threes from the number they were shown. This counting was a distracter task designed to prevent rehearsal and prove that forgetting caused by decay.

dissociations

A situation in cases of brain damage, in which the damage causes a problem in one function while not affecting other functions

homunculus

A small person inside the head who performs cognitive functions such as looking at images on a screen. Proposing a homunculus explains nothing, and no one would ever do it on purpose; accusing someone of having a homunculus in his or her model is a scathing criticism.

unlearning

A source of forgetting. Practicing a new association between a cue and target memory weakens the associative link between the cue and another memory.

occlusion - in memory

A source of forgetting. There is a stronger link from a cue to some undesired memory than to the target, and the cue therefore always calls up the undesired memory.

meta-analysis

A statistical method for combining numerous studies on a single topic. A meta-analysis computes a statistical index (known as effect size, or d) that tells us whether a particular variable has a statistically significant effect, when combining all the studies.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

parsimonious

A theory is parsimonious if it is the simplest theory possible that accounts for all the data.

script

A type of schema that describes a series of events.

proposition

A verbal representation of knowledge. It is the most basic unit of meaning that has a truth value.

flashbulb memory

A very rich, very detailed memory that is encoded when something that is encoded when something that is emotionally intense happens.

free recall

A way of testing memory in which the experimenter provides no cues other than the time and place in which the memory was encoded

Phoneme

An Auditory Pattern Recognition; One specific language sound. A whole _______ could be missing and the word could still be perceived.

Definition of Flashbulb Memory

Accurate and long lasting memories formed at times of intense emotion such as significant public or personal events. Extreme emotion may lead to forgetting.

Problem of Invariance

An Auditory Pattern Recognition; The sounds of speech are not invariant from one time to the next

Auditory Erasure

After hearing the list of items, participants in the suffix group heard an additional auditory stimulus

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

An effect in which you are certain you know a concept but cannot think of the proper term for it.

source confusion

An error in a source memory. For example, you mistake your own thought for an event that actually happened (or vice versa). Another type of source confusion is mixing up the time and location information of two real memories. For example, you might read the New york Times and the National Enquirer on the same morning and think you read an article in one paper, whereas it was actually in the other.

Phobic Disorder

An excessive fear of a specific object

Implicit memory task

An indirect measure of memory. Participants see the material and later during the test phase they are instructed to complete a cognitive task that does not directly ask for either recall or recognition. previous experience with material facilitates performance on a later task.

exemplar

An instance of a category.

demand characteristics

Anything about the way the experiment is conducted that signals to the participant what the desired, appropriate or expected behavior is.

What was the 2nd wave?

Applied scientific method to study of the mind; not done previously due to presumptions people held about how the mind was likely to work.

Lazarus 1975

Appraisals are assesments we make of a situation Necessary for humans to react to emotional stress

Lazarus & Folkman 1984

Appraisals, everyone reacts differently in a different situation because we are individuals

Artificial concepts (Formal concepts)

Arise out of logical rules or definitions. All those objects meeting the criteria are included, those missing features are excluded.

Empiricism

Aristotle

Who is the father of Empiricism

Aristotle

Who thought that the mind must be in the heart, not the brain?

Aristotle, based on the observation that sometimes people survived severe injury to the brain, but they never survived serious injury to the heart.

How do we form concepts?

Artificial and natural concepts.

AutoShaping

As a result of CS-US pairings, subjects begin to treat the CS like they would the US

What is Associationism?

Associationism holds that knowledge originates from simple information from the senses and that this sensory information can be combined into more complex ideas.

Operant Conditioning

Associations between a response and its consequences

Cannot

Attention _____ move eyes without moving attention first

Can

Attention _____ move without moving eyes

Conscious

Attention is necessary for _____ perception

100-200

Attention movement precedes eyes movement by ___-___ ms

Four Main Processes of Observational Learning

Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Reinforcement/Motivation

Echoic Sensory Memory

Auditory sensory memory that lasts up to several seconds

Introspectionists were concerned with: A) origin of knowledge or B) explain the workings of the mind.

B) they were trying to explain conscious thought (Wundt, breaking down conscious elements)

Aversive consequences

Bad things, such as shock

Behaviorism

Behavior changes through rewards and punishments. Can only know that which is directly observable. No speculation about what is going on in "The mind"

Positive Contingencies

Behavior leads to receiving the consequence

Negative Contingencies

Behavior leads to the absence or removal of a consequence

Developmentally delayed

Behavioral and cognitive skills are at an earlier developmental stage than the skills of other who are the same age

3rd wave?

Behaviorism, science of overt behavior; until the late 1950's

Behaviorism vs. Tolman

Behaviorism-No free will, No expectancies, No learning without rewards. Tolman-Goal directed behavior, Form expectancies, Learning without rewards

Partial Reinforcement extintion effect

Behaviors that have been partially reinforced are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors that have been continuously reinforced

Mental Imagery (mnemonic strategy

Being able to imagine an item or idea when it is not physically present or active.

Real-World Example of Persistence:

Can range from a blunder on the job to a truly traumatic experience, like rape.

Natural Concepts

Categories that have "general rules" about what belongs. We create a "prototype" or "best example"

probabilistic view of categorization

Category membership is proposed to be a matter of probability. Prototype and exemplar models fall within the probabilistic view.

Three pars of Working Memory

Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuospatial working memory.

Neisser & Harsch 1992

Challenger spaceshuttle explosion, tested memory recall 24 hours after, and two years after. Two years later the recall wasnt accurate at all

Meaning

Cherry and Moray's experiment concluded that in our unshadowed ear/unattended channel, there is little memory for _____

Do Not

Cherry and Moray's experiment concluded that in our unshadowed ear/unattended channel, we _____ notice if language changes from English to German or any other language

Do Not

Cherry and Moray's experiment concluded that in our unshadowed ear/unattended channel, we ______ remember one word is repeated 35 times

Tone

Cherry and Moray's experiment concluded that in our unshadowed ear/unattended channel, we notice change in gender, _____, loudness, location

How Classical Conditioning Works

Choose two stimuli-Stimulus 1(neutral)->no response, Stimulus 2(meaningful-> response

What are the Mnemonic Techniques?

Chunking, Loci, Peg word, Acronyms, etc.

emotional conditioning

Classical conditioning in which the unconditioned response is an emotion

Intelligence Quotient

Comparing mental age with chronological age multiplied by 100

Prosopagnasia

Condition in which people cannot recognize human faces

Low; High

Cones have ______ sensitivity to light, but have _____ acuity.

The word "cow" is what type of morpheme?

Content

What were the results?

Correctly recognized more faces judged for honesty -Why? Distinctiveness Elaboration

If much of our behavior is controlled by rewards and punishments, do we really have "free will?"

Depends on who you talk to...

Dualism

Descartes

Dualism is to ______ as tabula rasa is to ___________ (Locke, Descartes, Freud, Jung).

Descartes Locke

"I think therefore I am" was said by whom? What was this person best known for?

Descartes; Dualism.

process model

Describes relationships among processes. Sternberg (1969) proposed a simple flowchart of the four separat mental processes that occured during the timed portion of very trail.

Real-World Example of Transience:

Deterioration of a specific memory over time

What implications did the ability of being able to predict humans have?

Determinism. It implied we are as easy as an algorithm. It denied us of our free will.

Intelligence tests how?

Developed a series of questions that got progressively more difficult. Tested child's mental age and compared it to the child's actual age or chronological age.

Wechsler tests

Developed different IQ tests specifically for adults and children. Has a verbal score and performance(nonverbal) score

Unattended

Dichotic Listening: Changes noticed in ______ channel indicate location of attention filter

What are the 3 kinds of attention processes?

Divided, Selective, and Saccadic Eye Movements

Examples for Appetitive vs. Aversive

Dog sits on command-> gets a treat Touch the filing cabinent-> get a shock

"I think therefore I am." is statement that supports what and was said by whom?

Dualism; Descartes, he believed introspection was the way to gain knowledge

Relearning Task

Ebbinghaus developments in general scientific methodology; A list is learned, set aside for some period of time, then relearned to the same criterion of accuracy (e.g., one perfect recitation of list)

Saving Task

Ebbinghaus developments in general scientific methodology; The reduction in the number of trials necessary for relearning compared to original learning

3-4

Echoic memory store is about ___-___ seconds.

semantic priming

Effect in which performance of a task is biased by having seen semantically related words or pictures viewed earlier

repetition priming

Effect in which performance of a task is biased by one's having seen the same words or pictures sometime earlier

Higher

Effects of Repetition; Longer lists were found to take more trials to learn than shorter lists, but showed _____ savings upon relearning.

Finkenauer et al. (1998)

Emotional-Intergrative Model of flashbulb memories

Finkenauer et al. (1998) Emotional-Intergrative Model of Flashbulb Memories

Emotions are more complex and involve processes important to creating FBM's. -Suprise directly affects FBM's -Personal to everyone -Intensity and suprise both trigger emotion Study: King of Belgium died: -Participants: 394 French speakers -Questionnaire 7-8 Months later, asking about different factors that affect FBM's. Supports model.

semantic

Encoding in LTM is primarily _____.

Three Key Memory Processes

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

Cohen 1993

Evaluates schema theory, too vague to be useful

Define Absent-Mindedness

Everyday memory failure in remembering information and intended activities, probably caused by insufficient attention or superficial, automatic processing during encoding.

flashbulb memory

Everyone remembers where they were on 9-11 when they heard the news of attacks on the World Trade Center... name for phenomenon...

anatomic dissociation

Evidence that two different tasks are supported by different parts of the brain.

(4) What do the 7 sins of memory tell us about how memory works?

Examples to get you thinking about how to discuss this part of the question include the following: attention's role; emotions' influences; recoding; retrieval cues; past knowledge influencing current encoding; etc.

Loftus & Palmer 1974

Experiment of 150 participants watching car crash film and words like hit or bumped or smashed influenced recall. Then a week later they were called back and asked if they saw broken glass. Those that had the stronger adjective said they saw broken glass. There was no broken glass.

Baddedley & Hitch 1974

Experiment, asked people to read prose whilst understanding its meaning, and at the same time recalling sets of 6 numbers. People took longer if they had to use their memories, but it was significantly shorter if they only had to remember 3 numbers. Suggesting there is more than one 'unitary' store in the short term memory bank.

Sensory Memory

First step of memory storage process. Holds information in your mind for a very brief period time.

100-200

Fixation (time given to focus) takes approximately ___-___ ms.

Brown & Kulik 1977

Flashbulb Memory Theory

Selective attention

Focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others. Constantly working. Stimuli compete for our attention.

(1) Briefly describe the model of episodic memory developed by Tulving.

For this question, we want you to outline the steps for Tulving's episodic memory model. This includes original engrams, coding, recoding, cognitive state, etc. See the link on the modules page for the diagram Dr. Strayer used in his lecture.

Real-World Example of Blocking:

Forgetting someones name

chunking

Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units

(5) What important things does this tell us about the structure of human long-term memory?

H.M. had his hippocampus removed to stop his seizures. Clive had viral encephalitis that destroyed portions of his hippocampus. Drugs can also inhibit LTM encoding—such as Versed which causes conscious sedation. You are conscious during surgery, but post-surgery, you won't remember anything.

Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Assymmetry

HERA Model

Acoustic Similarity

Harder to remember words that sound; This is within our Phonological Loop

William James kind of got the shaft why?

He had a laboratory, but it wasn't a lab.. yeah.

Why is Wilhelm Wundt considered to the the founder of psychology?

He had the first Psych. lab in 1879 and did things to keep psychology going such as: started journals trained students wrote a textbook told universities to make departments

Why do we have this capacity to form mental images? What is it for?

Helps aid memory so we can predict and plan.

How do we Know that there are two types of LTM?

Henry M., Clive Wearing.

What Questions were posed about perception?

How do we gain access to knowledge about the world immediately around us?

What Questions were posed about Memory?

How do we retain knowledge about the world for later use?

Brown & Kulik 1977

How does culture affect FBM, JFK and MLK experiment.

Memory Storage

How is information retained over time and represented in memory.

Means-end analysis

How much effort/money/time do you put in to get maximum benefit?

The renaissance is known to be marked by a rise in humanism; what does this mean?

Humanism emphasizes secular concerns and the individual. (as opposed to religious concerns and the religious community)

spatial imagery

Imagery that emphasizes where objects or parts of objects are locatr3ed. Spatial imagery can be contrasted with visual imagery, which emphasizes how things look.

Sound

In Acoustic Similarity, evidence for phonological code, confusion occurs if words ______ alike: mad, cat, man, map cat

Looking

In Acoustic Similarity, evidence for phonological code, no confusion for similar-______ words: bough, doug, dough, through

Meaning

In Acoustic Similarity, evidence for phonological code, no confusion for similar-______ words: huge, long, tall, big, wide

Central Executive

In Alan Baddely's model of working memory, the component that integrates information from the phonological loop and the visuospatial working memory, as well as material retrieved from long-term memory. This also plays a major role in planning and controlling behavior.

Difficult

In Baddeley's Dual Task Method experiment, he concluded that when the secondary task is very _________, the articulatory loop must borrow some of the central executive's resources.

Selective

In Broadbent's view, attention acts as a _____ filter; regardless of how many competing channels or message there are, the filter can be tuned, or switched, to any of them, based on characteristics such as loudness or pitch

One

In Hemineglect, the patient is unable to direct attention voluntary to _____ side of space, so he or she neglects stimuli on that side.

6

In Moray's Dichotic Listening Task, the unattended channel presented that only ___% of the time did they hear "You may stop now"

33

In Moray's Dichotic Listening Task, the unattended channel presented that only ___% of the time did they hear "[subject's name], you may now stop"

Benefit

In Posner's spatial cuing task, the faster response resulted from the useful advance information was the ______ of the experiment.

Cost

In Posner's spatial cuing task, the response that resulted baseline was because of the misleading clue is a ____ of the experiment.

Attentional

In a visual search, our ______ focus helps us to hold on the organizing principle that is used to identify the target

Proximal

In direct perception, all the information you need is in the _______ stimulus. The stimulus information is unambiguous.

Maxim of Quantity

In making a contribution to the conversation, you should say nothing more nor less than is required., A speaker must not give more or less information than required

E.c Tolman

In opposition to skinner's behaviorism, Tolman enphasized the idea that much of behavior is directed and purposeful

sensitivity

In signal detection theory, a measure of the participant's absolute ability to detect a signal. Sensitivity is measured independently of any bias the participant might have to report or not report signals. Also, the ability of a test to detect memories that are in the storehouse.

Decay

In the Brown-Peterson task results suggest that _______ was the mechanism responsible for forgetting.

Uncondiditoned response

Innate response to meaningful stimulus

Are we born with our fears or do we acquire them through experience?

Innate-Reflexive responses to stimuli Learned-Feelings of fear to stimuli

Limited

Input attention has a ______ mental resource

Phobias

Irrational, extreme fears maybe we acquire them through classical conditioning experiences as well

What made the scientific method new in the Renaissance?

It emphasized observation as a route to knowledge

Define determinism

It is possible to have a complete understanding of human behavior such that I can know what a person will do before he or she does it.

distractors, foil, lures

Items that appear on a visual search experiment trial that are not the target item that the participant is to find. Also used in recognition memory experiments to denote incorrect responses. Synonyms of distractor memory experiments are foil and lure.

Why was William James' introspection different?

James' frowned on dogmatic lab psychology

Who speculated that the crystalline body of the eye functions as a lens does and therefore inverts the image perceived through the eye?

Johannes Kepler (1604) five years before he published the first 2 laws of motion (astronomy)

Which philosopher believed we are all blank slates? ("Tabula Rasa")

John Locke

Who turned Psychology on it's head following Wundt?

John Watson

Unlimited

LTM has an _________ capacity

Distal

Lack of correspondence: perceptual experience DOES NOT correspond to the _______ stimulus. This is illustrated by Zollner Illusion; The Muller-Lyer Illusion; ***Hering Illusion***

Pidgin

Language that may develop when two groups of people with different languages meet. The pidgin has some characteristics of each language, but is not a language in and of itself.

Creating subgoals

Large problems are broken down into manageable steps.

Retrieval

Last step in memory. The process of bringing information out of long-term storage and into conscious awareness.

Long-Term Memory

Last step in the memory storage process in which we can store unlimited amounts of information for a long time.

Cognitive and Biological factors in emotion

Le Doux 1999 Lazarus 1975 Lazarus & Folkman 1984 Lazarus & Folkman 1988 Speisman et al. 1964

Conditioned Response

Learned response to previously neutral stimulus

Observational learning

Learning by watching others

Latent Learning

Learning occurs even when responses are not being reinforced-however, it might not be immediately reflected in behavior. Also called implicit learning.

Temporal; Occiptal; Associative

Left and right hemispheres have cross-hatched regions at the junction of the _____ and _____ lobes, the region is usually damaged in ______ agnosia.

Parietal; Apperceptive

Left and right hemispheres of the brain, _____ agnosia usually is limited to posterior regions of the right hemisphere _____ lobe

Punishment

Less likely to occur (responding negative)

Feature Demons

Level 1 of Pandemonium: Simplest elements of a retinal image and is scanned by ______ ______.

Cognitive Demons

Level 2 of Pandemonium: ______ ______ listen to the feature demons; never see the actual image; "scream" once they have enough evidence

Decision Demons

Level 3 of Pandemonium: ______ ______ choose an output of what information the cognitive demons have given them

Short-term Memory

Limited capacity memory system which stores information for approximately 30 seconds without effort. Also called working memory

Tabula Rasa

Locke

Gricean Maxims

Maxims of communication are cooperative principles that successful conversationalists obey. They are Pragmatic rules that govern language and conversation; Maxim of Quality Maxim of Quantity Maxim of Manner Maxim of Relevance

Unconditioned stimulus

Meaningful stimulus

Retrieval cues

Means by which people retrieve information from long-term memory. The more cues that are associated with memory, the easier it will be to retrieve.

Real-World Example of Absent-Mindedness

Misplacing keys, eyeglasses, or forgetting appointments because at the time of encoding sufficient attention was not paid on what would later need to be recalled.

exemplar model

Model of categorization that maintains that all exemplars are stored in memory, and categorization judgments are made by judging the similarity of the new exemplar to all the old exemplars of a category.

Central Executive

Model suggests that this coordinates the activity of the two helper systems, retrieval strategies, selective attention, suppression of habitual responses

What is the difference between mood and emotion?

Mood: general long-lasting experience Emotion: reaction to a specific stimulus

Reinforcement

More Likely to occur (Responding positive)

Problem Solving

Moving from a given state(problem) to a goal state (solution)

Baddedly & Hitch 1974

Much more complicated than MSM, Working Memory Model: Levels of Processing How we do different types of visual, mathematical, audio and literal memory tasks at once.

Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968

Multi-store Model of Memory, basic architecture

(3) Describe how Neely's research provides support for the roles of automatic spreading activation and limited capacity attention in semantic retrieval.

Neely's research (expected vs. unexpected relations of words/concepts). By linking unrelated concepts (e.g. parts of a building with body parts), Neely was able to measure how well people can link unrelated concepts to each other, and how related concepts (e.g. window->door) can interfere with the newly learned links (e.g. door->arm). Also, Neely showed that attention plays a role in linking unrelated concepts, while minimal attention is required for automatic spreading of previously related concepts.

General Evaluation against Flashbulb Memories

Neisser (1982) - Not encoded differently to normal memories - Longlasting, often talked about and revisited (conversation & media)

Feature Detector

Neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus (Hubel and Wiesel, 1959;1965) In featural analysis and the stimulus broken down into parts and re-assembled to identify it and look for a piece of information

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with our ability to remember old information.

Are any of the episodes and events that we experience recalled with complete accuracy?

No, Memories are "reconstructions" based solely on sensory input that was successfully encoded and successfully retrieved.

Nondeclarative or Implicit Memory.

Nonconscious memories for skills, procedures, subliminal information, and classically conditioned responses. Memory for "How"

retroactive interference (RI)

Now information that interferes with remembering old information; backwards-acting interference.

Bottom-Up

Object recognition is based on ________ processing is insufficient to explain percetption

(2) What are the five basic assumptions of the model of semantic memory?

Organized as as network Concepts linked together Semantic relatedness Spreading activation between related concepts Activation of one concept partially activates semantically related concepts

Organization (mnemonic strategy)

Organizing items needed to remember by categorizing them.

Active

Our Articulatory Loop is _______ rehearsal

Passive

Our Phonological Store is ________ retention

Plato is to: __________ as Aristotle is to_________. (Dualism/Rationalism/Empiricism)

PLATO: Rationalism ARISTOTLE:Empiricism

dual coding hypothesis

Paivio's proposal that concepts can be encoded verbally, in terms of mental images, or both.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Part of the WM and used to actively manipulate visual and spatial information. Mental Rotation, boundary extension, and representational momentum

Sternberg Task

Participants first stored a short list of letters, called the memory set, in short-term memory. They then saw a suingle letter, the probe, and responded yes/no depending on twhether the probe item was among the letters in the memory set.

digit span task

Participants hear a list of digits read to them, one digit per second, and must immediately recite the list in the correct order. This task has been used to measure primary memory capacity since the turn of the 20th century.

Selective-attention task

People are intstructed to responf selectively to certain kinds of information

mood-dependent memory?

People are more likely to remember material if their mood at the time of retrieval matches the mood they were in when they originally learned the material

Context Specific Memory

People will recall information better if the context in which the information is learned is the same as when it is being recalled

What are the 3 ways of asking how knowledge is acquired? (First asked by greek philosophes and now by cogn. psychologists)

Perception Memory Nature and Nuture

Autoshaping Examples

Pigions will start to peck at a light that has been paired with food

Rationalism

Plato

Who is the father of rationalism?

Plato

Rationalism is to ______ as Empiricism is to __________ (Socrates, Plato, Galileo, Aristotle).

Plato Aristotle

Eye Movement

Poser concluded from his spatial cuing task that attentional focus that people were switching was a thoroughly cognitive phenomenon, not tied to ___ ______ or other overt behavior. (ex: Visual Search Tasks)

Three step process of problem solving

Preparation production evaluation

Reduces

Presenting stimuli rapidly ______ primacy effects

Produces

Presenting stimuli slowly _______ primacy effects

(6) Provide a description of how have researchers interpreted the primacy and recency effects and the experimental evidence used to support this interpretation.

Primacy effects: can be likened to LTM whereas Recency effects: can be likened to STM Recency (end of list): items that occupy Working Memory and are in that sensory memory Primacy (beginning of list): number of time you can rehearse affects retrieval—if you can't rehearse you won't transfer to LTM Think about: the first items get more time for rehearsal, but the final items haven't had as much time to decay. Distracters prevent rehearsal and keep your STM busy, thereby causing a time delay which causes decay.

(6) How are they obtained and what do they look like?

Primacy it is higher, then a dip to make a "U" and higher with recency

Folkman & Lazarus 1988

Problem focused coping emotion focused coping how you deal with a situation can be different, you can either change the situation or change your outlook on it.

Retrieval-practice effect

Process of trying to retrieve information from long term memory. When it is retrieved, it enhances learning.

image inspection

Processes engaged to better know the visual characteristics of an image

What were some pros and cons of Mechanism?

Pros: we were all machines despite sex/race it made scientists view several parts Cons: parts are multifunctional you can't fix every person using the same tactics (denied individual characteristics)

Proximity

Proximal stimulus doesn't differ based on _______ to the observer, yet we perceive depth

Saccades

Rapid-eye movement observed when the individual is visually tracking a moving stimulus, particularly one meaningful word

What are 2 views on the source of knowledge?

Rationalism and Empiricism

recoding

Re-organizing or modifying information to assist storage in memory

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Recall is better if the retrieval context is similar to the encoding context

(2) Provide evidence supporting the model of semantic memory:

Recall the bird-->robin and bird-->ostrich example and how response times varied between these two experimental conditions.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcement occurs after every target response

Shaping

Rewarding successive approximations of the goal behavior until the goal behavior has been mastered

Define Misattribution

Remembering a fact correctly from past experience but attributing it to an incorrect source of context

nodes

Representation of concepts in hierarchical and spreading activation theories

links

Representation of the relationship between concepts. In the hierarchical model. the links are labeled, whereas in spreading activation from one node to another.

High; Poor

Rods have _____ sensitivity to light, but have _____ acuity.

Rapidly; 30

STM decays fairly _____ in the absence of rehearsal; approximately ___ seconds

peterson and peterson

STM duration. participants show trigram, count backwards in 3s as a distraction for various amounts of time (eg. 3, 12, 18 seconds). asked to recall. 3 seconds- 80% remembered. 18 seconds- less than 10%. this shows if rehearsal prevented then information is lost BUT it could have been due to the counting displacing.

Limited

STM has a _________ capacity

badeley

STM- participants asked to immediately recall words from each catagory in order: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, semantically dissimilar. with STM harder to recall similar sounding words. LTM- 10 words to remember insted of 5 and after an interval of 20 mins. when recalling it was hard to remember semantically similar words. STM acoustic encoding. LTM semantic encoding.

25-100

Saccades (our eye movements) take approximately ___-___ ms to occur.

Talarico & Rubin 2003

Said FMB's are often portrayed with such confidence in the memory, not so much accuracy

Fredrick Bartlett, Jean Piaget

Schema Theory

content-addressable storage

Scheme by which to organize memories in which the content of the memory itself serves as the storage address

addressing system

Scheme to organize memories in which each memory is given a unique address that can be used to look it up.

Edward L. Throrndike

Scientist that first demonstrated the power of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior

Ivan Pavlov

Scientist that systematically studied how we form associations between stimuli (classical conditioning)

250-500

Short-duration memory holds visual information for approximately ___-___.

Partial Reinforcement

Sometimes the target response is reinforced and sometimes it is not reinforced

visual imagery

Sometimes visual imagery refers to any imagery in the visual modality. It also has a more specialized meaning, referring to imagery tasks that emphasize what things look like. Visual imagery can be contrasted with spatial imagery, which emphasizes where things are located.

Distributed-practice effect

Spacing out short time slots of learning instead of one long session. 15 minute study blocks, then a break, then resume.

Maxim of Relation

Speakers should speak to relevant context / what has been said previously.

S factor

Specific intelligence; special gift in a particular area.

working memory

Specific theory of primary memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), it has three parts: a phonological loop, a visuospatial sketchpad, and a central executive. Working memory is proposed to be a workspace for cognitive processes, not simply a short-term storage device.

Partial Report Condition

Sperling's Iconic Memory Duration; the condition in which only part of the visual display is reported

Whole Report Condition

Sperling's Iconic Memory Duration; the condition in which the entire visual display was to be reported

Span of Apprehension

Sperling's Iconic Memory Duration; the number of individual items recallable after any short display

Sensory Memory

Stage 1 of Modal Model - Atkinson, & Shiffrin (1968)

Short Term Memory

Stage 2 of Modal Model - Atkinson, & Shiffrin (1968)

Long Term Memory

Stage 3 of Modal Model - Atkinson, & Shiffrin (1968)

Working Forward

Start at initial state and work to goal state. (Math problems (2+6)/(4*1)=? you complete the math inside the parenthesis first, then divide the quantities to get to the solution)

Working backwards

Start with examples of goal state and evaluate how it was attained.

(1)Use this framework to describe why state dependent learning occurs.

State dependent learning is the effect the cognitive state and cognitive environment has on encoding original engrams. For example, if you learn something while intoxicated you will recall the information if you are in a similar cognitive state (intoxicated).

Inhibit

Stroop created the dual-task situation - we have to _____ natural inclination (reading) to follow task instructions (name the font color of set letters)

What is another name for recognition-by-components theory?

Structural theory

(4) What are the 7 sins of memory?

TAB Moldy Soda Bi-Product: Transience, Absentmindedness, Blocking, Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias and Persistence

T or F: Immanuel Kant believed that mental processes take place in time, but they don't take up any space and therefore can't be measured. Thus, the scientific method could not be applied to mental processes.

TRUE (p.11). People used this argument during the Renaissance as a reason to not study the mind, because what was the point?

T or F: George Berkley argues that even something that feels as natural as the perception of distance actually requires experience.

TRUE. Berkeley was an extreme empiricist. He discussed this idea to emphasize that there are no native, inborn ideas and that everything must be learned.

T or F: Greek philosophers posed questions that insinuated that explanations of events in this world should rely on other events within this world instead of invoking magical or mystical things.

TRUE. For example, Hippocrates proposed that epilepsy was a disease of the body (as other diseases were understood to be), thereby rejecting earlier views that it resulted from direct intervention of god.

T or F: Greek philosophers posed questions that insinuated that the world can be understood and predicted because it works in systematic ways.

TRUE. If events occurred randomly or at the whim of capricious gods, trying to predict events would be hopeless.

T or F: Greek philosophers posed questions that insinuated that we can potentially understand and predict how humans operate.

TRUE. If we can predict other things in this world, why not humans; If humans were completely different from physical objects and animals, we could never hope to predict what people might do or think.

T or F: ALL empiricists agreed that association in time or place was important

TRUE. They were right to emphasize the amount of time and repeating pairings to associate things.

Categorical Perception

The ability to perceive sounds as belonging to different phoneme categories (e.g. that ability to differentiate between /p/ and /b/); speech sounds are continuous, no sharp differentiation from one sound or the other, the actual soundwaves, but we categorize a continuous spectrum of speech sounds

Creativity

The ability to produce valued outcames in a new way

repression

The active forgetting of an episode that would be too painful or threatening to the self to be remembered.

span of apprehension

The amount of information that can enter consciousness at once.

Variable Interval (VI)

The amount of time that must pass before you get

Visual Persistance

The apparent persistence of visual of a visual stimulus beyond its physical duration

7+/- 2

The capacity of STM is _____ items of information in meaningful chunks

Transduction

The changing of physical stimulus into neural energy in light

Episodic Buffer

The components of WM where information form different modalities and sources are bound together. This integrates information from varies sources. "Multidirectional" code. Makes a link between WM and CTM more explicit

proactive interference (PI)

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the retrieval of new information

Where

The dorsal route goes through the parietal cortex which is also the _____ pathway.

Shape

The dorsal route that goes through the parietal cortex and is known as the "where" pathway specializes in _____ perception

recognition failure of recallable words

The effect in which words that were not recognized are nevertheless recalled successfully on a later test.

Le Doux 1999

The emotional brain, Short route from the thalmus to the amygdala, Long route via the neocortex and hippocampus woman walking home seeing a creepy man in an alley

visuo-spatial sketchpad

The first component of working memory; holds and manipulates visual images and spatial information, holds info in an analog spatial form while it is being used

elaboration

The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding .....creating a huge spider web of links between some new information and everything you already know

strength view of memory

The idea that memories vary in how strongly they are represented, and more strongly represented memories are easier to retrieve.

context effects

The idea that memory will be better if the physical environment at encoding matches the physical environment at retrieval

transfer appropriate processing

The idea that memory will be better to the extent that the cognitive processes used at encoding match the cognitive processes used at retrieval

What is the McGurk effect?

The influence of visual information on speech perception

Proximal Stimulus

The input that is created at sensory receptors in our eyes, ears, and fingertips

activation

The level of energy or excitement of a node, indicating that the concept the node represents is more accessible for use by the cognitive system.

concept

The mental representation that allows one to generalize about objects in a category

Variable Ratio (VR)

The number of times that you must make the response before you are reinforced varies from trial to trial

Distractors

The ones you are trying to ignore are ______ that must be eliminated or excluded

phonological store

The part of the phonological loop that can store about 2 s of auditory information.

phonological loop

The part of the working memory model in which auditory information is stored.

source

The source of a memory refers to where and when it was encoded, whether someone told you the information or whether you experienced it directly or just thought about it.

Maxim of Manner

The speaker must be concise and neat in his speech, not opaque or ambiguous

Sensation

The stimulation of sense in organs

Psychophysics

The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experiences

What is Epistemology?

The study of how we know what we know

spontaneous recovery

The sudden uncovering of a memory that was believed to be forgotten.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors that may interfere with learning

Define Bias

The tendency for knowledge, beliefs, and feelings to distort recollection of previous experiences and to affect current and future judgments and memory.

Define Suggestibility

The tendency to incorporate information provided by others into your own recollection and memory representation.

Define Transience

The tendency to lose access to information across time, whether through forgetting, interference, or retrieval failure

(6) What are serial position effects?

The tendency to recall earlier words is called the primary effect; the tendency to recall the later words is called the recency effect.

Define Persistence

The tendency to remember facts or events, including traumatic memories, that one would rather forget, that is, failure to forget because of intrusive recollections and rumination.

primacy effect

The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first in a sequence.

recency effect

The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes last in a sequence.

long-term memory

relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amount of information for a long time

Fixed Interval (FI)

There is a set interval of time that must pass before you can make the response and get reinforced

Fixed Ratio (FR)

There is a set number of times that you must make the response before you are reinforced

Fixation

These are pauses during which the eyes are almost stationary on a certain target and then information is taken in. (circles)

Ganglion Cells

These cells collect messages and are passed along to the third level layer of neurons to create the optic nerve

Bipolar Cells

These cells have patterns of neural firing from the rods and cones and are forwarded to the second later of neurons.

Paradoxical

These perceptual constancies have to do with ___________ correspondence: size, color, and shape

Complex Cells

These visual cortex cells respond to edges, movement, and retinal position is NOT important

Hypercomplex Cells

These visual cortex cells respond to specific sizes, heights, widths, gaps, corners, etc.

Concepts are important because

They make our lives faster, easier, and more predictable.

what was the first wave of the study of the mind?

They were considered with the workings of the mind; primarily the acquisition of knowledge.

shallow processing

Thinking about the surface characteristics of stimulus materials ( ie what they look like).

Fovea

This is a highly sensitive area in the retina and is responsible for precision. Mostly made of cones.

Memory Span

This is a number of items we can recite back in order without error 50% of the time

Paradoxical Correspondence

This is an issue for a theory of perception and it is when the proximal and distal stimuli do not correspond, but the representation and distal stimulus do.

Lack of Correspondence

This is an issue for a theory of perception and the representation does not correspond to the distal stimulus. Example: Visual Illusions

Negative Priming

This is another aspect of inhibition; The slower responding to a target when that target was to-be-ignored item on the previous trial

Articulatory Suppression

This is difficult to retain words while simultaneously articulating something (saying "the the the" over and over again). Coming up with way to prevent visual speech input form being phonologically coded

Word Length Effect

This is more difficult to remember a list of long words; This is within our Phonological Loop

Working Memory

This is our STM + simultaneous real-time organization. Explains stuff like problem solving, because STM didn't.

Short Term Store

This is our consciousness in control (when we code, rehearse, organize, and make decisions)

Encoding

This is the act of getting information into memory; the role of attention, and focusing awareness

30

Treisman Filter Theory: ___% of subjects switched channels, following the meaning

Increase; Parallel

Treisman and Gelade examind spotlight attention in visual search and pattern recognition. Because there was no _____ in RT across the display sizes in the disjunction search condition, Treisman and Gelade concluded that visual search for a dimension such as a shape or color occurs in _____ across the entire region of visual attention.

Attentuation

Treisman's ______ Theory: a series of studies to explore slippage (unattended information slipping past the filter in Broadbent's task)

Generate & Test

Trial and error strategy. Create possibilities, test them and discard the ones that are incorrect. (Your car won't start, try again, check the gas, check the battery, etc.) *This may not be the most efficient stategy. (trial and error)

T or F: Watson said "Screw the mind, we can't tell if you are lying"

True (coincides with Kant's beliefs which stunted growth earlier during the Renaissance)

Divided-attention task

Trying to pay attention to two or more simultaneous messages

Classical Conditioning 2

Two Stimuli Bell+Food- Result Bell->Salivation

Classical Conditioning

Two Stimuli- Bell (Neutral)->No response, Food(Meaningful)-> Salivation

procedural memory

Type of memory that changes the way you respond to or do things; it encompasses motor skills learning, classical and emotional conditioning, and priming. It's often contrasted with declarative memory.

(2) Why do typicality effects provide problems for the model and how have researchers modified the original ideas to accommodate typicality effects?

Typicality effects reflect how a robin is a more "typical" bird than an ostrich. When researchers realized that these effects were present, they dropped the economy of representation assumption of the model to accommodate for typicality effects.

Erasure

Under normal viewing conditions, one moment's visual input replaces the previous visual input by means of ____ or "write-over".

(3) Describe how lexical decision tasks have been used to study semantic memory.

Used to test semantic memory networks. These tasks can be determining if a word is an actual word or a non-word. They can also test if two concepts are related, such as doctor--> nurse or doctor-->bread.

Keyword method (mnemonic strategy)

Using a familiar word that sounds or begins similar to a word you want to learn. Then you connect the two to remember it.

generalize

Usually applied to categories, it means to use information gathered from one exemplar to a different exemplar of the same category. For example, if you learn that a specific dog likes to have its stomach rubbed, you may generalize that knowledge to other dogs and assume that ehy too like to have their stomachs rubbed.

Iconic

Visual Sensory Memory is also known as ______ memory

Iconic Sensory memory

Visual sensory memory that lasts about a quarter of a second

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid Memories for highly significant, traumatic, or emotional experiences and events.

Saccades

Voluntary sweeping of eyes from one fixation point to another (lines)

What triggered the need for cognitive Psychology?

WWII advances in physiology/medical equiptment development of the computer

Bartlett 1932

War of the ghosts story, serial reproduction.

Who proposed that the basic unit of behavior might be the conditioned reflex?

Watson

Why does taste aversion learning occur so quickly and last for so long?

We are more biologically prepared to make certain types of associations quickly and permanently

Characteristics of Selective attention

We can only fully attend to one thing at a time, Items compete for our attention (Cocktail party effect) Inattention leads to encoding failure

(1) Use this framework to account for Loftus's research on eye witness testimony.

We don't record memories like a movie, but are able to store bits and pieces.

Inattentional Blindness

We fail to see the objects we are looking at directly even something highly visible because we are not attending to it

Concept Formation

We group objects, events, activities, ideas that share similar characteristics.

Mental Sets

What has worked before

What questions were posed about nature and nurture?

What is the origin of knowledge? Is it innate or learned? or is is it simply remembered?

What was the final straw (or final blow)with behaviorism?

When Skinner attempted to explain language acquisition via behaviorist principles

controlled retrieval

When a person actively tries not to retrieve a declarative memory.

Hierarchies

When an object fits into more than one category. Superordinate-broadest , Mid-level categories- basic level concepts, Subordinate category-most specific.

Erasure

When the contents of visual sensory memory are degraded by subsequent stimuli;the loss of the original information

Word Superiority

When the context of surrounding letters influences how one reads a word (e.g. THE CAT => H and A look different even though both are drawn the same way)

Desirable difficulties

When you create longer breaks when attempting to recall learned information. If you practice over and over in the same time slot, it will seem easy and you may become over confident. If you take several minutes in between learning a new concept, you will start to forget it and it may be harder to retrieve, but will stick better for the long run.

Filtering

When you try to ignore the many stimuli or events around you so you can focus on just one

Who founded experimental psychology

Wilhelm Wundt

who came up with Structuralism?

Wilhelm Wundt

Who was the father of structuralism?

Wilhelm Wundt, founder of experimental psychology 1879 and his student Tichener

Who founded structuralism?

Wilhelm Wundt, structuralism had the goal to describe the structures that comprise thought

Conscious

With repetition and over learning comes the ability to perform automatically what formerly needed _________ processing.

Duration of Short-term Memory

Without effor: around 30 seconds, Effects of rehearsal, effects of distractors.

Content Morpheme

Words that have independent, real world meanings, and might occur in a dictionary. -> aka lexical morphemes -> a morpheme that carries the main semantic and referential content of a sentence -> in English content morphemes are usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs -> have meanings outside the given language

Pickering & Gathercole 2001

Working memory test battery for children (?) found that age 5 to 15 shows the largest improvement in performance of working memory capacity. Also showed that memory problems are often associated with problems in education.

Was it successful?

Yes it was, the damaged areas were removed but he suffered amnesia a couple of years before the surgery so he couldn't remember those years.

(5) Describe the primary symptoms of anterograde amnesia.

You cannot learn new things, but old memories are mostly intact. Remember that individuals with this amnesia usually have working short-term memory (STM), but the encoding to LTM is impaired.

Input

____ Attention: - the basic process of getting sensory information INTO cognition - alertness or arousal - orienting reflex or response - spotlight attention and research this kind of attention is automatic

Controlled

_____ Attention: - selective attention - mental resources and conscious processing - supervisory attentional system

Zoom Lens

_____ _____ is how much information can we attend to at once and how can we constrain attention

Spotlight; Conceptual

_____ attention appears to be rapid, automatic, and perceptual. It is especially influenced by _____ driven processing.

Spotlight

_____ attention is the mental attention-focusing mechanisms that prepares you to encode stimulus information

Distributed

_____ coding is the representation by a pattern of firing across a number of neurons. This theory recognizes complex patterns like faces.

Specificity

_____ coding is the representation of a specific stimulus by firing specifically tuned neurons specialized to just respond to a specific stimulus. This theory recognizes complex patterns like faces.

PET

_____ is a form of neuroimaging used to identify areas of heightened activity during WM tasks.

Mirror

_____ neurons are a class of premotor neurons in the frontal lobe of humans that fires specifically both when performing an action and observing another human performing the same action

Implicit

_____ processing in which there is no necessary involvement of conscious awareness (ex: movement)

Explicit

_____ processing involves conscious processing, conscious awareness that a task is being performed, and usually conscious awareness of the outcome of that performance

Trans-Saccadic

_____-_______ Memory for information across eye movement. This memory is needed to create a complete mental representation. This appears to be based on object files and people attending to individual objects.

Vigilance/Sustained

_____/_____ Attention: maintaining attention for infrequent events over a long period of time (hard to do). This attention can degrade over time

Proactive

______ Interference is when older material interferes forward in time with you recollection of the current item.

Retroactive

_______ Interference is when newer material interferes backward in time with your recollection of older items.

Automatic

_________ processing occurs without conscious awareness or intention and consumes little if any of available mental resources, also very fast .

Conscious

__________ processing occurs with intention and a deliberate decision, and it takes up a lot of mental resources and is open to awareness, also fairly slow.

Language

a communicative system that follows a set of rules (regularity) that operate at different levels 1) Phonological rules (how it sounds) 2) Syntax (sentence structures; how words are combined with one another) 3) Semantics (meaning) 4) Pragmatics (practical aspects, conventions)

episodic buffer

a component of the working memory model of primary memory. It stores information in a multimodal code; that is, that code can represent visual, auditory, or semantic information.

levels of processing

a continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing = better memory

depth of processing

a description of how one thinks about material at encoding. Depth refers to the degree of semantic involvement

Alzheimer's Disease

a disease of older adults that causes dementia as well as progressive memory loss

Means End Analysis

a heuristic; probably most use; combines hillclimbing and subgoals; analyze a difference between the current situation and the desired outcome, then do something to reduce the difference; does not preprint detours from final goal; example: pitcher's strategy with best batter-ultimate goal-to win game and keep batters off the base, a walk the best batter to eliminate more runs; look at end goal and decide the series of steps in order to reach that goal

Working Backward

a heuristic; used when means end analysis strays from goal; begin with goal and work backwards towards the "givens"; used when goal has more information than the givens and when the operations involved work two ways; example: $100 to spend, buy one item and subtract $100 to determine how much is left

Episodic buffer

a limited-capacity system that is capable of binding information from the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop as well as from long-term memory into a unitary episodic representation (integrative)

mnemonic device

a memory aid, such as an abbreviation, rhyme or mental image that helps to remember something

anterograde amnesia

a memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events

flashbulb memory

a memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers the event as vividly as if it were filmed

Linguistic Relativism

a moderate form of linguistic determinism that argues that language exerts a strong influence on perceptions of the people who speak it; (Sapir & Whorfian Hypothesis) your language influences how you think

Was Descartes an empiricist or a nativist?

a nativist

(2) Briefly describe Collins and Quillian's model of semantic memory.

a network of interconnected nodes, which represent concepts.

prime

a node that activates a connected node

positivty effect

a phenomenon showing that people tend to rate previous negative events more positively with the passage of time.

Well-Defined Problem

a problem that has only one correct solution and a certain method for finding it. Example. Your friend has one home address

script

a schema for an event, often containing information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences

Phonological Rules

a set of rules that indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds

autobiographical memory

a special from of episodic memory, consisting of a person's recollections of his or her life experiences

Distinctiveness

a stimulus is different than other memories

Recency effect

a tendency for items at the end of a list to be recalled better than items in the middle of a list.

Information-processing approach

a theory of cognition proposing that 1) mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer and 2) information progress through the cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time.

Context and Comprehension

ability to go beyond words and word meanings to understand entire texts; context; how we understand a text as a whole, not word by word

Retrieval

access memory in LTM and place in STM

pegword system

associate each new word with a word on a previously memorized list and form and interactive image between the two words

Process-dissociation model

assumes that implicit and explicit memory both have a role in virtually every response; thus, only one task is needed to measure both these processes

Alzheimer's Disease

atrophy of the cortical tissue is shown in this disease

HERA Model

attempts to account for differences in hemispheric activation for semantic vs. episodic memories

Attention

attend to info in sensory store, it moves to STM

Econ

auditory information held for 2-3s to enable processing

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory, retained for several seconds

Give an example of a fixed action pattern

birds migrating during the winter

Why did behaviorism become the dominate theory of experimental psychology in the 20th century?

because it was something that could be easily proven, tested, and observed. It had more empirical credibility

Sternberg

believed there were 3 different types of intelligence. Triarchic theory of intelligence. Analytical, Creative, Practival.

Principle of Contrast

children's assumption that no two words have the same meaning. Hence they assume that a new word will not refer to something for which they already have a name; words differ from other words, and we use visual cues

The dark ages and middle ages were a bleak time for studying the mind due to what causes?

constant invasions from barbarians rise of christianity feudalism decrease in urbanism etc.

Functional fixednes

conventional uses

Babbling

cooing phonemes of native language; the extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins between 6 and 9 months of age

Central executive

coordinates attentional activities and governs responses (focuses on relevant items and inhibits irrelevant ones); plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, switches attention; updates and checks content to determine next step in sequence of parts

interactive images

create images that link the isolated words in a list

Hippocampus

critical for integration and consolidation, essential for declarative memory

Depth of processing: What is it?

deep, meaningful information processing leads to more permanent retention that shallow sensory processing

repression

defense mechanism by which a person is so traumatized by an event that he or she forgets it and then forgets the act of forgetting

partial report procedure

developed by Sperling to examine iconic memory, it's a procedure whereby participants are shown an array of stimuli (usually letters or numbers) very briefly and then a given a cue telling them which subset of the stimuli to report. This method showed that participant perceive most of the stimuli in a complex array.

acronym

devise a word or expression in which each of its letters stands for a certain other word or concept

self-reference effect

enhance long-term memory by relating the material to your own experiences

acoustic confusion effect

errors in primary memory based on sound. The presence of such errors indicates that participants use an acoustic code in primary memory on the task.

spreading activation

every time an item is studied, you think of items related to that item

Declarative memory

explicit memory

Priming

exposure to a stimulus influences response to a subsequent stimulus

reminders

external memory aids

Partial report procedure

flash a matrix for 50 ms, identify a specific row - participants able to report any row requested

Whole report procedure

flash a matrix for 50 ms, identify as many letters as possible - participants remembered 4 letters

Subsequent refinement

flash a matrix for 50 ms, mark a letter - results indicated up to 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory

Everyone remembers where they were on 9-11 when they heard the news of attacks on the World Trade Center... name for phenomenon...

flashbulb memories

sperling

flashed 3 rows of letters at participants and asked to recall immediately- 4 or 5 letters remembered. each row was flashed with a different pitched tone played for each- participants remembered 9 or 10.

decay

forgetting facts as time passes

motivated forgetting

forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable

acrostic

form a sentence to help memorize the new words

keyword system

form an interactive image that links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word

classical conditioning

form of learning discussed in chapter 6, involves the automatic learning associations between stimuli

What is encoding?

getting information into storage

retrieval?

getting information out of storage

Lexical Processing

i. Words, ability to identify letters in words, but also to get information about those words from memory

Recognition

identification of items that had been presented at an earlier time -ex: multiple choice tests

Nondeclarative memory

implicit memory

Backward visual masking

mental erasure of a stimulus caused by the placement of one stimulus where another had been previously placed (L F E)

Phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

Language Acquisition Device

in chomsky's theory an innate system that contains a universal grammar or set of rules common to all languages that permits children to understand and speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they have learned enough words; Thmopsky's idea that we have biologically innate mechanism to learn language

Pollyanna Principle

in memory and other cognitive processes, the principle that people usually process pleasant items more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items.

recall task

in memory reserach, a task requiring the participants to reproduce items learned earlier.

Gestalt

in perception and problem solving, an overall quality that transcends the individual elements in the stimulus

Operational definition

in psychology research. a precise definition that specifies exactly how researchers will measure a concept

elaboration

in the levels-of-processing approach to memory, rich processing that emphasizes the meaning of a particular cocept; it also relates the concept to prior knowledge and interconnected concepts already mastered.

Infantile amnesia

inability to recall events of young childhood

Nondeclarative memory

includes procedural skills, priming, conditioning, and nonassociative memory

Declarative memory

includes semantic and episodic memory

decay theory

information is forgotten because of the gradual disappearance, rather than displacement, of the memory trace

visual executive

integrates information from phonological loop and visuospatial working memory, also the long-term memory

What is functionalism?

it moved away from the contents to focus on the function/purpose of consciousness

What were some arguments that opposed Behaviorism and new thoughts that developed?

it was only concerned with consequences creativity was an unknown concept we see the re-emergence of thinking as an important part of human existence behavior is now seen as another mechanism of communication and is representative of cognition disagreement of the 'black box'

negative set

items that were not presented

positive set

items that were presented

What did arguments against behaviorism focus on?

its relative inflexibility, limited validity, and piecemeal explanations

Rotary-Pursuit task

keep stylus on a dot on a rotating disk; after practice, participants find it easy to reproduce if working with the same size disk, but difficult if different size disk is used

Storage

keeping encoded information in memory (processes used to maintain information in memory)

Hypothesis Testing View

kids test out structures of words, combines both environmental and natural acquisition of language

procedural memory?

knowledge about how to do something, think how to make a yummy PB&J

Receptive knowledge

knowledge evoked in response to a stimulus

retroactive interference

later learning interferes with earlier learning.

Kant get in trouble stating that...

mental processes take time but not space, this it CAN'T BE STUDIED, what an a s s hat.

massed practice

learning in which sessions are crammed together in a very short amount of time

distributed practice

learning in which various sessions are spaced over time

Criticisms of LOP

levels are defined as deeper because information is retained better; information is retained better because levels are deeper (circular)

Short term memory

limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as thirty seconds unless we use strategies to retain it longer

retrieval

locating information in memory storage and assessing that information.

nodes

locations of neural activity

amnesia

loss of memory

Antereograde Amnesia

loss of memory for events that occur after the trauma

Retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma

Short-term Store

material remains for about 30 s, information is stored acoustically rather than visually, 7 items ± 2 capacity

Semantic

meaning of the word

elaborative rehearsal

meaningful rehearsal of items to be remembered

Culture-relevant tests

measure skills and knowledge that relate to the cultural experiences of the test-takes

What is behaviorism?

mechanistic, socciation, contents of the mid were irrelevant

Divisions of LTM: What is episodic memory?

memories of events that happen to a person, think episodes

repressed memories

memories pushed into unconsciousness because of the distress they cause

Levels-of-processing Framework

memory does not comprise a specific number of separate stores, rather varies along a continuous dimension in terms of depth of encoding

Procedural memory

memory for processes, knowing how to do something

procedural memory

memory for skills

retrograde amnesia

memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events

autobiographical memory

memory of an individual's history

retrospective memory

memory of the past

Sensory memory

memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, nor much longer that the brief time it is exposed to the visual , auditory, and other senses

recall

memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information

Recognition

memory task in which the individual only has to identify learned items ie. multiple choice tests

episodic memory

memory that is associated with a particular time and place, with a this-happened-to-me feeling.

Connectionist Parallel Distributed Processing Model

memory uses a network, meaning comes from patterns of activation across the entire network, supported by priming effects

Left hemisphere

most active in encoding memories and in semantic memory retrieval

Right hemisphere

most active in retrieval of episodic memory

retroactive interference

new memories interfere with the recall of old information

iconic memory

name given to the visual variety of sensory memory

Propositional Complexity

number of propositions in a sentence; the more propositions, the more more difficult to understand a sentence

source-monitoring error

occurs when a person attributes a memory derived from one source to another source

abstract words

one that does not refer to a physical object

Holophrases

one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, whose meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used; exclamatory - want, give

serial processing

operations being done one after another

categorical clustering

organize a list of items into a set of categories

Chunking

organize the input into larger units

semantic memory?

organized knowledge about the world

metacogntion

our ability to think about and control our own processes of thought

Cued recall

participants are given a cue to facilitate recall; sometimes the entails learning paired associates

Explicit Memory

participants engage in conscious recollection

Self-reference effect

participants show very high levels of recall when asked to relate words meaningfully to the participants by determining whether or not the words describe them

brady

participants shown 2500 images then asked to say which ones they had seen when given the option of two (one would have been seen, the other might be similar but not seen before). participants remembered around 90%

Implicit Memory

participants unconsciously recollect information

What was the flaw in the introspection implemented in Wundt's lab?

people were trained on what they should be experiencing

double dissociations

people with different kinds of neuropathological conditions show opposite patterns of deficits

Iconic store

pre-categorical information held for 250 ms, up to 12 items that fade very quickly

schema

preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. Schemas form prior encounters with the environment influence the way we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information

constructive memory

prior experience affects how and what we recall

encoding specificity principal

states that information present as the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue

hypermnesia

process of producing retrieval of memories that seem to have been forgotten

What is consolidation?

process of putting new info into permanent storage

What is associationism?

process of the mind (congruity, similarity, &contrast) proposed by ebbinghaus

Retrieval

processes used to get information back out of memory

Elaboration

processing new information by associating it with other concepts in permanent memory

Recall task

production of a fact, word or other item from memory

Expressive knowledge

productive knowledge

concrete words

refers to a physical object

recency effect

refers to better recall for items at the end of a list

release from proactive interference

refers to the effect in which proactive interference dissipates if one changes the stimulus materials.

obligatory access

refers to the fact that verbal informaiton (but not all sounds) appears to be entered into the phonological loop by its mere presence, even if the participant does not want it to enter.

decay

refers to the hypothesis that forgeting the results (at least in part) from the spontaneous decomposition of memories over time.

decay

refers to the hypothesis that forgetting results (at least in part) from the spontaneous decomposition of memories over time.

metamemory

reflecting on our own memory processes with a view to improving our memory

Self-reference

relation material to your own experience

Prospective memory

remembering information about doing something in the future; includes memory for intentions

retrospective memory

remembering information form the past

Rehearsal

repeat the information to keep in maintained in STM

Test effect

repeatedly testing oneself tends to improve one's memory and help one overcome overconfidence

maintenance rehearsal

repetitious rehearsal

secondary memory

repository for memories. Contrast with Primary memory.

analog

representation that has important properties of pictures but is not itself a picture. Mental images are usually referred to as analog representation.

serial-position curve

represents the probability of recall of a given word, given its position in a list

Recall

reproduction of items that had been learned earlier -few memory cues -ex: fill-in tests, essay questions

episodic memory

retention of information about where, when, and what of life's happenings- that is, how individuals remember life's episodes

covert practice

silent and hidden practice

construction

similar to the idea of reconstruction. Reconstruction is the process by which memories are recalled. Construction is a particular memory that feels to the participant like a real memory but has no basis in fact.

parallel processing

simultaneous handling of multiple operations

proactive interference

situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material tat was learned later

retroactive interference

situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier

SOA

stimulus onset asynchrony

give an example of a critical period

small window of time when ducklings learn who their mother is

cue

some information from the environment(or that the participant is able to generate) as a starting point for retrieval.

Incubation

some problems require a period in which we allow the most pertinent facts to come into focus, allowing distracting or irrelevent info to fade from our minds.

mnemonist

someone who demonstrates extraordinarily keen memory ability

Phonological

sound combinations associated with the letters (rhyme)

Semantic Memory

stores general world knowledge

free recall

subjects recall the list of items in any order they wish. we often find that people recall items based on their semantic content rather than the item's order in the list. Items at the beginning and end of the list are often recalled with more accuracy than items in the middle of the list.

serial recall

subjects recall the list of items in their original order of presentation.

Why was brain surgery performed on him?

suffered from grand mol seizures

primacy effect

superior recall of items at the beginning of a list

recency effect

superior recall of items at the end of a list

post-identification feedback effect

telling people they made the right choice makes them embrace their choice, telling them they were wrong makes them reject their choice

serial position effect

tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle (consists of primacy effect and recency effect)

prospective memory

the ability to remember a future intention

priming

the activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster

central executive

the cognitive supervisor and scheduler, which integrates information from different sources and decides on strategies to be used in tasks and allocates attention.

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information

practice effects

the effects of rehearsal

encoding

the first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage

Syntax

the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences

reconstruction

the idea that memories are not simply pulled out of the storehouse ; rather, they are interpreted in terms of prior knowledge to reconstruct what probably occurred.

Sensory store

the initial repository of much information that eventually enters the short- and long-term stores

Connectionist Parallel Distributed Processing Model

the key to knowledge representation lies in the connections amoung various nodes stored in memory, not each individual node

Memory

the means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences to use that information in the present (alt. the mechanism we use to create, maintain and retrieve information about the past)

Flashbulb memory

the memory of emotionally significant events tat people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events

retrieval

the memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage

memory span

the number of digitalis an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them

Relearning

the number of trials it takes to learn once again items that were learned in the past

levels-of-processing approach

the observation that recall is generally more accurate when people process information at a deep, meaningful level, rather than a shallow, sensory kind of processing. See also depth-of-processing approach.

depth-of-processing approach

the observation that recall is generally more accurate when people process information at a deep, meaningful level, rather than a shallow, sensory kind of processing.See also levels-of-processing

encoding-specificity principle

the observation that recall is often better if the context at the time of encoding matches the context at the time of retrieval.

Overextension

the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning; all pets called "Doggy", all fruits called "orange"

consolidation

the process of integrating new information into stored information

reconstructive memory

the process of putting information together based on general types of stored knowledge in the absence of a specific memory representation

articulatory control process

the process that allows one to enter information into the phonological store; it is literally the process of talking to yourself.

priming effect

the resulting activation of a node

memory

the retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage and retrieval

storage

the retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory

Pragmatics

the rules for the use of language in social context and in conversation or the study of these rules; the study of language use

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of how people perceive, learn, remember and think about information

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

articulatory/phonological loop

the speech and sound related components responsible for rehearsal of verbal information and phonological processing

What is epistemology?

the study of knowledge

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Functional Fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

Gestalt psychology

the theoretical approach emphasizing that: 1) humans actively organize what they see; 2) they see patterns; and 3) the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

interference theory

the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember

Permastore

the very long-term storage of information (names, math, language)

decay theory

theory that states when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trance forms, but over time its trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting

Arbitrariness

there is no inherent connections between a symbol and the concept it represents; there is only an arbitrary connection between sound and meaning (e.g. the word "dog" does not look or sound like an actual dog)

Define a nondeterministic point of view

there is something else that guides our thoughts and determines our actions. Due to free will we cannot determine behaviors perfectly

When was introspection used in wundt's lab?

to study structuralism. typically during something mundane such as a metronome

Encoding

transformation of sensory data into a form of mental representation (processes used to store information in memory)

Iconic memory

visual sensory memory, retained for only 1/4 of a second

method of loci

visualize walking around an area with distinctive landmarks, then link the various landmarks to specific items to be remembered

Physical

visually apparent features of the letters

clive wearing

was a great conductor but got a virus and lost his hippocampus. can't make new long term memories and his short term lasts between 7-30 seconds. procedural memory was not effected but episodic was. hippocampus must control memory transfer from short to long term memory.

Mirror-Tracing task

watch mirror image to trace a figure; after learning, participants become efficient

Who were proponents of Behaviorism?

watson, skinner, and pavlov

At this point in the 20th century where were we in the rationalism-empiricism continuim?

we aired more on the side of empiricism and majorly denied introspection due to our lack of ability to test and prove it

list some problems with behaviorism

we do not learn language because of reward. memorizing lists of words using strategy

Confirmation bias

we see what we want to see

encoding specificity

what is recalled depends on what is encoded

visual code

what it looks like

semantic code

what it means

acoustic code

what it sounds like

interference

when competing information interferes with storing information

context -dependent memory

when people remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it


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