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Study Guide For Communication 2500 Chapter one: Similarities between public speaking and conversation Organizing your thought logically Tailoring your message to your audience Telling a story for maximum impact Adapting to listener feedback Differences between public speaking and conversation Public speaking is more structured Public speaking requires more formal language Public speaking requires a different method of delivery Stage fright produces adrenaline that you should turn into positive nervousness Book suggest preparation, think positively, and visualize successs Include critical thinking your in speeches Be focused, organized and logical Have sound evidence recognizing the difference between fact and opinion Remember the elements of the communication process (first day lecture) Speaker Message Channel Listener Feedback Your book includes frame of reference (how we see things: moment of anger, flirting, etc.) & Situation (where are we talking) Remember interference is anything that impedes communication. Ethocentrism is thinking that our personal culture is better than others. Avoid it. Chapter Two: Ethics Make sure your communication is ethical. Guidelines for ethical speaking: be fully prepared, be honest, and avoid name calling or any other abusive language. Plagiarism is presenting another's ideas as your own. Global plagiarism is stealing the entire speech. Patchwork plagiarism is stealing parts of a speech. Incremental plagiarism is failing to give credit for ideas or thoughts you borrowed as in research: failure to site your source. Paraphrase is to summarize someone else's ideas into your words. Chapter Three: Listening Understand that there is a difference between hearing and listening. Appreciative listening is for enjoyment. Empathic listening is to provide emotional support. Comprehensive listening is for understanding. Critical listening is for evaluation of the speaker's ideas. Spare brain time is the term your books uses for we think faster than most people talk. Causes of Poor Listening include: not concentrating, listening too hard (trying to catch it all) jumping to conclusions and focusing on the person rather than the speech. Ways to improve Listening: take it seriously, be active in your listening (respond and engage) resist distractions, don't be diverted by the person, suspend judgment, learn to listen to general ideas rather than every word. Listen to the speaker's main ideas, evidence and style and technique. Chapter Four: Your first Speech An icebreaker speech is one that introduces you to your audience. The first step is to choose a topic. The three key elements of the speech are introduction, body and conclusion. Chronological order is to develop your speech on a time line. Topical order is to develop your main points into topics that relate (the location of Bermuda, things to do there and best times of year to visit.) An extemporaneous speech is planned and you use an outline. Impromptu is off the cuff. Manuscript is read. Memorized is self-explanatory. Extemporaneous is preferred. Remember to gesture make eye contact and speak up. Chapter Five: Choosing a Topic Choose a topic that you already know and know lots about. Tools for choosing a topic: Brainstorming is just making a list of everything you think might make a good speech. Clustering is brainstorming in categories by making lists of people, places concepts, etc. Use the internet to search for your topic. Wow and we needed a textbook for that. The general purpose is the broad goal of the speech The specific purpose is the phrase that precisely tells what you hope to accomplish. The central idea is a summary of the major ideas of the speech. Residual message is what the speaker hopes the audience will remember. Chapter Six: Analyzing the Audience Keep the audience as the key to your speech development and delivery. Egocentrism is our tendency to put our values, beliefs and well-being above others. Demographic analysis is based on gender, age, religion, race, etc. Stereotyping is assuming that all members of a group are alike. Situational audience analysis focuses on the situation: size of audience, the reason for the speech, the topic. You can gather information by survey using questions that 1) fixed alternatives giving an audience a choice of what they would like to see accomplished, 2) scale questions i.e. "on a scale of one to ten..." 3) open ended questions that allow the audience to say anything they want. Chapter Seven: Gathering Materials Terms: Catalogue is a listing of all the books and materials in a library. Call number is the number used to help locate a book. Reference work is a book that synthesizes large amounts of material into one volume. Newspaper and periodical database catalogues materials from magazines, newspapers and such. Abstract is a summary of a magazine or journal article. Academic database catalogues academic research. Virtual library is use of the internet. Research interviews are actually talking to someone. Preliminary bibliography is a list of materials you might use in your speech. Chapter Eight Supporting Your Ideas The three major materials used to support your ideas are examples, statistics and testimony. Terms: Example is a specific case that illustrates your ideas. Brief example is a brief example Extended example is more of a story. Hypothetical example is a "what if." Statistics are numerical data. Mean is the average value of a group of numbers. Median is the middle number in the group. Mode is the number that occurs most frequently. Testimony is quotations used to support your point. Expert testimony is from recognized experts in the field. Peer testimony could be anybody. Direct quotation is word for word. Paraphrase is putting it into your own words. Quoting out of context is to distort the meaning by removing the quotation from the actual situation. Chapter Nine: Organizing the Body of the Speech Strategic organization is putting the speech together in a particular way to achieve a particular result with a particular audience. Spatial order is putting your main points together to follow a directional pattern or move from space to space. "First we will look at the older building on campus and then the classroom spaces." Causal order is a plain that shows cause and effect relationship. Problem solution order is pretty self-explanatory. Topical order was explained earlier. Terms: Connectives are words or phrases that connect the main ideas of the speech. Transition indicates that a speaker has finished one idea and will move into another. Internal preview lets the audience know what the speaker is going to discuss next. Internal summaries summarize the preceding point. Signpost is an indicator where the speaker is in the speech, "so for our second point..." Chapter Ten: Introductions and Conclusions The introduction: Get Attention by relating to the audience, stating the importance of the speech, startle the audience, open with a rhetorical question or tell a story. Reveal the topic by stating your purpose. Establish Credibility and Goodwill Credibility is the audience perception as to whether the speaker is qualified to speak. Goodwill is the perception that the speaker has the audience best interest in mind. Preview statement identifies the main points. The Conclusion: The conclusion should signal the end of the speech. Two types described by the test: Crescendo ending builds to a zenith of power and intensity. The dissolve ending fades step by step to a dramatic final statement. The Conclusion should reinforce the central idea. You can do this by summarization of the speech, end with a quotation about the central idea, make a dramatic statement about the central idea or refer to your introduction. Chapter Eleven: Outlining the Speech The preparation outline is developed during the preparation of the speech and includes title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main points, sub points, connectives, conclusion, and bibliography of the speech. Visual framework is the pattern of symbolization and indentation in a speech outline that shows the relationships among the speaker's ideas. In short, it is how you lay it out. Do you use Roman Numerals, letters, etc? Bibliography is the list of your sources. Speaking outline is a brief outline used to jog the speaker's memory. Delivery cues are directions used to help the speaker remember how he or she want to delivery certain points: raise the voice, pause for effect, etc. Chapter Twelve: Using Language Denotative meaning is the dictionary meaning of the word. Connotative meaning is the context in which the word was used. Concrete words refer to tangible objects Abstract words refer to ideas or concepts Example of moving from abstract to concrete: a physical activity, sports, basketball, a professional player, LeBron James. Clutter is the use of more words than are necessary to make a point. Imagery is the use of vivid language to create mental images. Simile is an explicit comparison introduced with the words "like" or "as" to make comparison. Cliché is a trite or overused phrase. Metaphor is an implicit comparison not using the words "like" or "as". Rhythm is the pattern of sound created by words or arrangement of words. Example: "we will fight them on the beaches, we will fight them in the streets..." Parallelism is the similar arrangement of words or phrases. "Rich and poor, intelligent and ignorant..." would be an example. Repetition is the reiteration of the same words or phrases. Alliteration is creating pattern by use of the initial consonant sound. Antithesis is the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas usually in parallel structure. Inclusive language does not stereotype nor exclude nor demean nor patronize individuals or groups. The generic "he" is the use of "he" to refer to both genders. Chapter Thirteen: Delivery Nonverbal communication is based on voice, movement facial expression, etc. Conversational quality is making the speech seem spontaneous. Vocal Delivery: Volume is how loud. Pitch is the highness or the lowness of the voice Inflection is the change in pitch Monotone is speaking in a constant pitch. Rate is the speed at which you speak. Pause is a momentary break in the speech. Vocalized pause is the habit to fill the pause with "uh" "er" "like". Vocal variety is changes in volume, pitch and rate. Pronunciation is the accepted standard for a word. Articulation is the production of the word. Dialect is the local affect on pronunciation. Kinesics is the study of the motions of the body. Take note of personal appearance, movement, eye contact, and gestures. Chapter Fourteen: Using Visual Aids Kinds of visual aids include objects and models, photographs, drawings, graphs, charts, videos, and sometimes the speaker himself. Types of graphs Line graphs uses lines to show change or statistics. Pie graphs use the circle to show distribution. Bar graph uses horizontal bars to show comparison. Chapter Fifteen: Speaking to Inform Types of Informative speeches: Speeches about objects Speeches about processes Speeches about events Speeches about concepts (a belief, theory, idea, or principle) Guidelines for Informative speaking: Don't overestimate the audience's knowledge Relate directly to the audience Don't be too technical Avoid being abstract Personalize ideas Be Creative Chapter Sixteen: Speaking to Persuade Persuasion is the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing a person's beliefs or actions. Mental dialogue with the audience is the mental give and take between speaker and listener. Target audience is the most important and specific part of the audience that the speaker wants most to influence. An example would be to focus on the decision makers in an audience: the committee chair or most out spoken people. Question of fact (in class I used the term proposition) has to do with the facts as we know them. Question of value has to do with the specific value of an idea. Question of policy is a call to change the rules. Speech to gain passive agreement tries to convince an audience a need for change without actually asking for specific action Speech to gain immediate action does call for just that. Terms: Burdon of proof is the obligation of the speaker to show a need for change. Plan is the process by which change will occur. Practicality is the question "will this work or make matters worse." Methods of organization: Problem solution is self-explanatory. Problem cause and solution is again self-explanatory. Comparative advantages plan shows how the speaker's plan is better than anyone else. Monroe's Motivated Sequence uses five steps: Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization and a call to Action. Chapter Seventeen: Methods of Persuasion Ethos is your credibility Initial credibility is created before you speak. Derived credibility is produced during the speech. Terminal credibility is the speaker's credibility after the speech. Good speakers create common ground. Tips for using evidence: Use specific evidence Use novel evidence (something new to the story) Use credible sources Make clear the point of your evidence Reasoning: The process of drawing a conclusion Reasoning from specific instances moves from particular facts to a general conclusion. Example: My PE class was easy. John's PE class was easy. Mary's PE class was easy. All PE Classes are easy. Reasoning from principle moves from general principle to a specific conclusion. Example: All people are mortal. Donald Trump is a person. Donald Trump is mortal. Casual reasoning shows the connection in a cause and effect argument. Example: The sidewalk was wet. I fell and broke my arm. The wet sidewalk caused me to fall. Analogical Reasoning occurs when the speaker compares two similar cases and infers that one is true because the other was true. Example: If you are good at tennis you will be good at Ping-Pong. The Fallacies: Hasty generalization is jumping to a conclusion without sufficient evidence. False cause is the mistake that because one event followed another that the first event caused the second. Invalid analogy is the situation where we compare two cases that are not essentially alike. "Apples to oranges "is a good example. Bandwagon is the argument that everyone agrees or that everyone is doing it. Red herring introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention. Ad hominem is literally Latin for at the man. This fallacy attacks the individual rather focus on the issues. Either or fallacy forces the listener to choose between two alternatives when actually more than two exist. Slippery slope is the argument that that first step in one direction will end in subsequent steps that can't be prevented. Appeal to tradition is the argument that something old is always better than something new. Appeal to novelty is the argument that something new is always better than something old. Pathos is the appeal to the emotions. Logos is the appeal to logic. Chapter Eighteen: Speaking on Special Occasions Speeches of introduction: Be brief Make sure your remarks are accurate Adapt your remarks to the occasion Adapt your remarks to the main speaker Adapt your remarks to the audience Try to create a sense of anticipation and drama Speeches of Presentation: This is a speech presenting an award or gift. Speeches of Acceptance: This is the speech accepting and giving thanks for an award. Commemorative speeches: This is a speech of tribute. Chapter Nineteen: Speaking in Small Groups A dyad is a group of two people. A small group is a collection of three to twelve. A problem-solving group does just that: solve a problem. Leadership is the ability to influence a group to work together. Implied leadership is a member to whom others defer because of rank, expertise or other quality. Emergent leader is someone who emerges as a leader during the deliberations. Designated leader is the person appointed or elected at the beginning of deliberations. Procedural needs are the routine housekeeping actions needed to keep the group on schedule such as scheduling the next meeting time, reading the minutes, etc. Task needs are actions needed to keep the group on task such as soliciting opinions, doing research, etc. Maintenance needs are communication actions that maintain the process of the group such as being sure there is harmony among members and that everyone feels she or he has a voice. Hidden agenda is a set of unstated goals that may conflict with the goals of the overall group. The reflective-thinking method of problem solving: Define the problem Analyze the problem Establish criteria for solutions Generate potential solutions Select the best solution Consensus is the decision is acceptable to all the members The three ways to present group recommendations: Oral report is a speech showing the findings. Symposium is a public presentation of several members of the group. Panel discussion is a structured conversation of the entire group before an audience.

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