Communication Arts 100 (Speech): Final Exam

Types of Testimony (3)

- Expert testimony - Peer testimony - Direct quotation

Tips for using testimony

- make sure you don't misquote someone -make sure you do not violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase -make sure you don't quote out of context -use testimony from qualified sources -use testimony from unbiased sources -identify the people you quote or paraphrase

Types of Examples (3)

-Brief Examples -Extended Examples -Hypothetical Examples

How to Enhance Credibility (3)

-Explain your competence (advertise expertise on the topic: personal knowledge or insight/investigated thoroughly) -Establish common ground with the audience (respect for listeners/point of view consistent what they believe) -Deliver your speech fluently, expressively, and with conviction (vocal variety, speed, spirit, enthusiasm)

Types of questions on Questionnaires (3)

-Fixed alternative questions -Scale questions -Open-ended questions

Analyzing Questions of Value (2)

-Justify your claim -Establish your standards and why your idea best meets these

Ethics and Emotional Appeal (4)

-Make sure it is appropriate to the topic -Most often inappropriate on questions of fact -they must be used to build on facts and reason--not to replace -Follows guideline of ethical speaking in chapter 2

Analyzing Questions of Fact (3)

-Present one view of facts as persuasively as possible -Mention competing views but refute them -Partisan (speaker acts as an advocate)

4 Methods of Organizing Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy

-Problem-solution order -Problem-cause-solution order -Comparative advantages order -Monroe's Motivated Sequence

4 Basic Methods of Reasoning

-Reasoning from specific instance -Reasoning from principle -Casual reasoning -Analogical reasoning

Organizing Speeches on Questions of Fact (2)

-Topically usually -Each topic is a reason why someone should agree with you

Organizing Speeches on Questions of Value (3)

-Usually topically -First main point establishes standards -Second main point applies those standards to the topic of the speech

Use Language Appropriately Guidelines

-appropriateness of occasion - appropriateness to the audience - appropriateness of topic - appropriateness to the speaker

statistics reliability

-are the statistics representative? -are statistical measures used correctly? -are the statistics from a reliable source?

Using Inclusive Language Guidelines

-avoid generic "He" -avoid generic "man" (when referring to men and women) - avoid stereotyping jobs & social roles by gender - use names that groups use to identify themselves

Use Language Clearly

-concrete words over abstract words -use familiar words -choose concrete words -eliminate clutter -avoid abstract words

Types of Supporting Materials (3)

-examples -statistics -testimony

Guidelines for reasoning from specific instances

-fair, unbiased, representative -avoid FALLACY hasty generalization -be careful with wording -reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony

Emotional Appeals

-fear: serious illness, natural disasters, sexual assault, rejection, economic hardship -compassion: disabled, battered women, neglected animals, starving children... -pride: in ones country, family, school, ethnic heritage, accomplishments -anger: terrorists and their supporters, members of congress who abuse the public trust, landlords who exploit student tenants, thieves -guilt: about not helping people less fortunate than us, not doing whats best -reverence: (respect) for an admired person, traditions, institutions

audience-centeredness

-keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation

Guidelines for reasoning from principle

-pay special attention to general principle -support your minor premise with evidence

Monroe's motivated sequence: satisfaction

-providing a solution to a problem -present a plan and show how it will work -offer enough details about he plan and give listeners a clear understanding of it

Analogical Reasoning

-reasoning in which the speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second -avoid FALLACY invalid analogy: an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike example) just because you are good at racquetball, you will be great at ping pong

Reasoning from principle

-reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion example) all people are mortal-->socrates is a person-->socrates is mortal -go from general statement to a minor premise

Monroe's motivated sequence: attention

-relating to the audience, showing importance of the topic, making a startling statement, arousing curiosity or suspense, posing a question, telling a dramatic story, using a visual aid

Monroe's motivated sequence: action

-say exactly what you want the audience to do and how to do it -conclude with a final stirring appeal that reinforces their commitments to act

Monroe's motivated sequence: need

-show there is a serious problem with the existing situation -illustrate it with strong supporting materials -listeners should be concerned about the problem they are psychologically primed to hear your solution

Tips for using statistics

-use statistics to quantify your ideas -use statistics sparingly -identify the sources of your statistics -explain your statistics -round off complicated statistics -use visual aids to clarify statistical trends

Monroe's motivated sequence: visualization

-visualizing its benefits -vivid imagery to show your listeners how they will profit from your policy -make audience see how much better conditions will be once your plan is adopted

Objectives of a Speech Introduction (4)

1) Get the Attention and Interest of your Audience -relate the topic to the audience, state the importance of your topic, startle your audience, arouse the curiosity of audience, question the audience, begin with a quote, tell a story 2) Reveal the Topic of your Speech 3) Establish your Credibility and Goodwill 4) Preview the Body of the Speech

Guidelines for Ethical Speechmaking (5)

1) Make Sure your Goals are Ethically Sound 2) Be Fully Prepared for Each Speech 3) Be Honest in what You Say 4) Avoid Name-Calling and other Forms of Abusive Language 5) Put Ethical Principles into Practice

What are the 7 Basic Elements of the Speech Communication Process?

1) Speaker 2) Message (intended/actual & verbal/non-verbal) 3) Channel 4) Listener 5) Feedback 6) Interference (internal/external) 7) Situation

Major Functions of a Speech Conclusion (2)

1) To Let the Audience Know you are Ending the Speech 2) To Reinforce the Audience's Understanding of, or Commitment to, the Central Idea

Types of Speech Connectives (4)

1) Transitions 2) Internal Previews 3) Internal Summaries 4) Signposts

Four reasonings listeners are persuaded by speakers

1) the perceive the speaker as having high credibility 2) they are won over by the speaker's evidence 3) they are convinced by the speaker's reasoning 4) the are moved by the speaker's emotional appeals

Factors of credibility (2)

1. Competence 2. Character

Types of Speeches on Question of Policy (2)

1. Gain passive agreement 2. Motivate immediate action

Types of Credibility (3)

1. Initial Credibility 2. Derived Credibility 3. Terminal Credibility

Analyzing Questions of Policy (3 basic issues):

1. Need 2. Plan 3. Practicality

Types of Questions for Persuasive Speeches (3)

1. Question of fact 2. Question of value 3. Question of policy

Generating emotional appeal

1. use emotional language 2. develop vivid examples 3. speak with sincerity and conviction

Tips for using examples

1. use examples to clarify your ideas 2. use examples to reinforce your ideas 3. use examples to personalize your ideas 4. make your examples vivid and richly textured 5. practice delivery to enhance your extended examples

Tips for using evidence (4)

1. use specific evidence 2. use novel evidence: things audience didn't already know 3. use evidence from credible sources 4. make clear the point of your evidence

Hasty Generalization

A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

False Cause

A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event followed another event the first even was the cause of the second

Bandwagon

A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable example) the governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60% of people support him

Slippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented example) if they waist money building a gym they will then waist money on a library and then a memorial park...

Ad Hominem

A fallacy that attacks the person rather then dealing with the real issue in dispute example)the head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family

Either-Or

A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist example) the government must either raise taxes or reduces services for the poor

Appeal to Novelty

A fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something that is old.

Appeal to Tradition

A fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new. (Opposite of appeal to novelty)

Central Idea of a Speech

A one-sentence statement that sums up the major ideas of a speech

Specific Purpose of a Speech

A single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to accomplish in his or her speech

direct quotation

A testimony that is presented word for word. *best when quotation is obscure or when the quotation is longer than two or three sentences

Invalid Analogy

An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not necessarily alike

Interference

Anything the impedes the communication of a message -Internal: distractions coming from within the audience -External: distractions coming from the surrounding area

ethos

Aristotle's term for what modern day students call credibility

metaphor

DOES NOT USE "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different but have something in common

Why should speakers avoid ethnocentrism?

It can lead to prejudice/hostility towards different racial, ethnic, religious or cultural groups

What is good about Monroe's Motivated Sequence?

More detailed and spurs listeners to action

Why is speaking to persuade challenging?

Objective more ambitious; audience analysis and adaption become demanding; controversial topics

What are Emotional Appeals?

Pathos (the name for emotion appeal provided by Aristotle), is intended to make people feel fear, compassion, pride, anger, guilt, reverence, etc.

Types of Fallacies (10)

Red Herring Ad Hominem Either-Or Bandwagon Slippery Slope Hasty generalizations False cause Invalid analogy Appeal to tradition Appeal to novelty

Audience analysis questionnaires

Shows audience's knowledge and attitudes on a specific topic and will provide you with a lot of information about what you need to address.

Expert Testimony

Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields. *earns credibilty

Guidelines for effective central idea (4)

The Central Idea: 1) should be expressed in a full sentence 2) should not be in the form of a question 3) should avoid figurative language 4) should not be vague or overly general

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures

General Purpose of a Speech

The broad goal of a speech

Channel

The means by which a message is communicated

Feedback

The messages, usually nonverbal, sent from a listener to a speaker

logos

The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning

Speaker

The person who is presenting an oral message to a listener

Listener

The person who receives the speaker's message

Egocentrism

The tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being.

Specific purpose of a question of Fact

To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 will hit California in the next 10 years.

Use of supporting materials in a speech

Used to support speaker's ideas; vivid, concrete examples have strong impact on listeners beliefs and actions; statistics clarify and support ideas; audiences tend to respect opinions of other people; quoting has a greater strength/impact

Message

Whatever a speaker communicates to someone else

Red Herring

a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion example) how dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the US

attitude

a frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.

comparative advantages order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions

problem-solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point represents a solution to the problem

problem-cause-solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second point analyzes the cause of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem

Monroe's motivated sequence

a method or organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.

speech to gain passive agreement

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy. -convince listeners that the policy is necessary and practical

speech to gain immediate action

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy. -contribute, sign petition, etc. -action reinforces belief -tell them what to do and how to do it

question of fact

a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion

question of value

a question about the worth, rightness, morality, ad so forth of an idea or action

question of policy

a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken

brief example

a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point

example

a specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like.

Informative Speech

a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding

Internal Preview

a statement in the body of a speech that lets the audience know what they'll be discussing next

extended example

a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point

creating common ground

a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

Signpost

a very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech that focuses attention on key ideas Ex: the first cause of the problem is... The second cause is...

Open-ended questions

allows respondents to answer however they want

Fallacy

an error in reasoning

hypothetical example

an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation

Disposition toward the topic

attitude towards the topic

demographic audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background

situational audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical settings for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion

stereotyping

creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike

Competence

how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject

Character

how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience

Types of Vivid Language

imagery and rhythm

Antithesis

juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel to structure example: Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.

Using Inclusive Language

language that doesn't stereotype or patronize, people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, etc.

Denotative Meaning of Word

literal/ dictionary meaning of a word or phrase

Connotative Meaning of Word

meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word/phrase

statistics

numerical data

Fixed alternative questions

offers fixed choice between 2 or more alternatives

Rhythm & Types

pattern of sound in speech created by choice & arrangement of words -parallelism -repetition -alliteration -antithesis

testimony

quotations or paraphrases used to support a point

quoting out of context

quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from words and phrases surrounding it

reasoning from specific instances

reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion

Causal Reasoning

reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects -avoid FALLACY of false cause

abstract words

refer to ideas/topics

concrete words

refer to tangible objects. call up mental sights, sounds, touches, smells, or tastes

repitition

reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clause or sentence

Scale questions

requires responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers

parallelism

similair arrangement of a pair/series of related words, phrases, sentences

Internal Summary

statement in the body of the speech that summarizes the speakers preceding point(s)

Transition

statement that finishes one thought and leads to the next Ex: "Now that we have" a clear understanding of the problem, "let me share" the solution with you.

evidence

supporting materials used to prove or disprove something

peer testimony

testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic *personal viewpoint

Credibility

the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

initial credibility

the credibility of a speaker before he or she starts to speak

derived credibility

the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech

terminal credibility

the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech

need

the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from the current policy? -Must have burden of proof to support the "need"

supporting materials

the materials used to support a speaker's ideas

mental dialogue with the audience

the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

burden of proof

the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary

target audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

persuasion

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

plan

the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a problem with the current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

practicality

the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?

Situation

the time and place in which speech communication occurs

paraphrase

to restate or summarize a source's ideas in one's own words *best when brief, witty, compelling, or they convey meaning better than you can

Imagery & Types

use vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas -simile metaphor

similie

uses "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different but have something in common

Use Language Accurately

words have shades of meaning