Communication Arts 100 (Speech): Final Exam
Types of Testimony (3)
- Expert testimony - Peer testimony - Direct quotation
Tips for using testimony
- make sure you don't misquote someone -make sure you do not violate the meaning of statements you paraphrase -make sure you don't quote out of context -use testimony from qualified sources -use testimony from unbiased sources -identify the people you quote or paraphrase
Types of Examples (3)
-Brief Examples -Extended Examples -Hypothetical Examples
How to Enhance Credibility (3)
-Explain your competence (advertise expertise on the topic: personal knowledge or insight/investigated thoroughly) -Establish common ground with the audience (respect for listeners/point of view consistent what they believe) -Deliver your speech fluently, expressively, and with conviction (vocal variety, speed, spirit, enthusiasm)
Types of questions on Questionnaires (3)
-Fixed alternative questions -Scale questions -Open-ended questions
Analyzing Questions of Value (2)
-Justify your claim -Establish your standards and why your idea best meets these
Ethics and Emotional Appeal (4)
-Make sure it is appropriate to the topic -Most often inappropriate on questions of fact -they must be used to build on facts and reason--not to replace -Follows guideline of ethical speaking in chapter 2
Analyzing Questions of Fact (3)
-Present one view of facts as persuasively as possible -Mention competing views but refute them -Partisan (speaker acts as an advocate)
4 Methods of Organizing Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy
-Problem-solution order -Problem-cause-solution order -Comparative advantages order -Monroe's Motivated Sequence
4 Basic Methods of Reasoning
-Reasoning from specific instance -Reasoning from principle -Casual reasoning -Analogical reasoning
Organizing Speeches on Questions of Fact (2)
-Topically usually -Each topic is a reason why someone should agree with you
Organizing Speeches on Questions of Value (3)
-Usually topically -First main point establishes standards -Second main point applies those standards to the topic of the speech
Use Language Appropriately Guidelines
-appropriateness of occasion - appropriateness to the audience - appropriateness of topic - appropriateness to the speaker
statistics reliability
-are the statistics representative? -are statistical measures used correctly? -are the statistics from a reliable source?
Using Inclusive Language Guidelines
-avoid generic "He" -avoid generic "man" (when referring to men and women) - avoid stereotyping jobs & social roles by gender - use names that groups use to identify themselves
Use Language Clearly
-concrete words over abstract words -use familiar words -choose concrete words -eliminate clutter -avoid abstract words
Types of Supporting Materials (3)
-examples -statistics -testimony
Guidelines for reasoning from specific instances
-fair, unbiased, representative -avoid FALLACY hasty generalization -be careful with wording -reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony
Emotional Appeals
-fear: serious illness, natural disasters, sexual assault, rejection, economic hardship -compassion: disabled, battered women, neglected animals, starving children... -pride: in ones country, family, school, ethnic heritage, accomplishments -anger: terrorists and their supporters, members of congress who abuse the public trust, landlords who exploit student tenants, thieves -guilt: about not helping people less fortunate than us, not doing whats best -reverence: (respect) for an admired person, traditions, institutions
audience-centeredness
-keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation
Guidelines for reasoning from principle
-pay special attention to general principle -support your minor premise with evidence
Monroe's motivated sequence: satisfaction
-providing a solution to a problem -present a plan and show how it will work -offer enough details about he plan and give listeners a clear understanding of it
Analogical Reasoning
-reasoning in which the speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second -avoid FALLACY invalid analogy: an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike example) just because you are good at racquetball, you will be great at ping pong
Reasoning from principle
-reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion example) all people are mortal-->socrates is a person-->socrates is mortal -go from general statement to a minor premise
Monroe's motivated sequence: attention
-relating to the audience, showing importance of the topic, making a startling statement, arousing curiosity or suspense, posing a question, telling a dramatic story, using a visual aid
Monroe's motivated sequence: action
-say exactly what you want the audience to do and how to do it -conclude with a final stirring appeal that reinforces their commitments to act
Monroe's motivated sequence: need
-show there is a serious problem with the existing situation -illustrate it with strong supporting materials -listeners should be concerned about the problem they are psychologically primed to hear your solution
Tips for using statistics
-use statistics to quantify your ideas -use statistics sparingly -identify the sources of your statistics -explain your statistics -round off complicated statistics -use visual aids to clarify statistical trends
Monroe's motivated sequence: visualization
-visualizing its benefits -vivid imagery to show your listeners how they will profit from your policy -make audience see how much better conditions will be once your plan is adopted
Objectives of a Speech Introduction (4)
1) Get the Attention and Interest of your Audience -relate the topic to the audience, state the importance of your topic, startle your audience, arouse the curiosity of audience, question the audience, begin with a quote, tell a story 2) Reveal the Topic of your Speech 3) Establish your Credibility and Goodwill 4) Preview the Body of the Speech
Guidelines for Ethical Speechmaking (5)
1) Make Sure your Goals are Ethically Sound 2) Be Fully Prepared for Each Speech 3) Be Honest in what You Say 4) Avoid Name-Calling and other Forms of Abusive Language 5) Put Ethical Principles into Practice
What are the 7 Basic Elements of the Speech Communication Process?
1) Speaker 2) Message (intended/actual & verbal/non-verbal) 3) Channel 4) Listener 5) Feedback 6) Interference (internal/external) 7) Situation
Major Functions of a Speech Conclusion (2)
1) To Let the Audience Know you are Ending the Speech 2) To Reinforce the Audience's Understanding of, or Commitment to, the Central Idea
Types of Speech Connectives (4)
1) Transitions 2) Internal Previews 3) Internal Summaries 4) Signposts
Four reasonings listeners are persuaded by speakers
1) the perceive the speaker as having high credibility 2) they are won over by the speaker's evidence 3) they are convinced by the speaker's reasoning 4) the are moved by the speaker's emotional appeals
Factors of credibility (2)
1. Competence 2. Character
Types of Speeches on Question of Policy (2)
1. Gain passive agreement 2. Motivate immediate action
Types of Credibility (3)
1. Initial Credibility 2. Derived Credibility 3. Terminal Credibility
Analyzing Questions of Policy (3 basic issues):
1. Need 2. Plan 3. Practicality
Types of Questions for Persuasive Speeches (3)
1. Question of fact 2. Question of value 3. Question of policy
Generating emotional appeal
1. use emotional language 2. develop vivid examples 3. speak with sincerity and conviction
Tips for using examples
1. use examples to clarify your ideas 2. use examples to reinforce your ideas 3. use examples to personalize your ideas 4. make your examples vivid and richly textured 5. practice delivery to enhance your extended examples
Tips for using evidence (4)
1. use specific evidence 2. use novel evidence: things audience didn't already know 3. use evidence from credible sources 4. make clear the point of your evidence
Hasty Generalization
A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence
False Cause
A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event followed another event the first even was the cause of the second
Bandwagon
A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable example) the governor must be correct in his approach to social policy; after all, the polls show that 60% of people support him
Slippery Slope
A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented example) if they waist money building a gym they will then waist money on a library and then a memorial park...
Ad Hominem
A fallacy that attacks the person rather then dealing with the real issue in dispute example)the head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family
Either-Or
A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist example) the government must either raise taxes or reduces services for the poor
Appeal to Novelty
A fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something that is old.
Appeal to Tradition
A fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new. (Opposite of appeal to novelty)
Central Idea of a Speech
A one-sentence statement that sums up the major ideas of a speech
Specific Purpose of a Speech
A single infinitive phrase that states precisely what a speaker hopes to accomplish in his or her speech
direct quotation
A testimony that is presented word for word. *best when quotation is obscure or when the quotation is longer than two or three sentences
Invalid Analogy
An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not necessarily alike
Interference
Anything the impedes the communication of a message -Internal: distractions coming from within the audience -External: distractions coming from the surrounding area
ethos
Aristotle's term for what modern day students call credibility
metaphor
DOES NOT USE "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different but have something in common
Why should speakers avoid ethnocentrism?
It can lead to prejudice/hostility towards different racial, ethnic, religious or cultural groups
What is good about Monroe's Motivated Sequence?
More detailed and spurs listeners to action
Why is speaking to persuade challenging?
Objective more ambitious; audience analysis and adaption become demanding; controversial topics
What are Emotional Appeals?
Pathos (the name for emotion appeal provided by Aristotle), is intended to make people feel fear, compassion, pride, anger, guilt, reverence, etc.
Types of Fallacies (10)
Red Herring Ad Hominem Either-Or Bandwagon Slippery Slope Hasty generalizations False cause Invalid analogy Appeal to tradition Appeal to novelty
Audience analysis questionnaires
Shows audience's knowledge and attitudes on a specific topic and will provide you with a lot of information about what you need to address.
Expert Testimony
Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields. *earns credibilty
Guidelines for effective central idea (4)
The Central Idea: 1) should be expressed in a full sentence 2) should not be in the form of a question 3) should avoid figurative language 4) should not be vague or overly general
Ethnocentrism
The belief that one's own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures
General Purpose of a Speech
The broad goal of a speech
Channel
The means by which a message is communicated
Feedback
The messages, usually nonverbal, sent from a listener to a speaker
logos
The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning
Speaker
The person who is presenting an oral message to a listener
Listener
The person who receives the speaker's message
Egocentrism
The tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being.
Specific purpose of a question of Fact
To persuade my audience that an earthquake of 9.0 will hit California in the next 10 years.
Use of supporting materials in a speech
Used to support speaker's ideas; vivid, concrete examples have strong impact on listeners beliefs and actions; statistics clarify and support ideas; audiences tend to respect opinions of other people; quoting has a greater strength/impact
Message
Whatever a speaker communicates to someone else
Red Herring
a fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion example) how dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for all people in the US
attitude
a frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.
comparative advantages order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions
problem-solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point represents a solution to the problem
problem-cause-solution order
a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second point analyzes the cause of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem
Monroe's motivated sequence
a method or organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.
speech to gain passive agreement
a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy. -convince listeners that the policy is necessary and practical
speech to gain immediate action
a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy. -contribute, sign petition, etc. -action reinforces belief -tell them what to do and how to do it
question of fact
a question about the truth or falsity of an assertion
question of value
a question about the worth, rightness, morality, ad so forth of an idea or action
question of policy
a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken
brief example
a specific case referred to in passing to illustrate a point
example
a specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like.
Informative Speech
a speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding
Internal Preview
a statement in the body of a speech that lets the audience know what they'll be discussing next
extended example
a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point
creating common ground
a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience
Signpost
a very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech that focuses attention on key ideas Ex: the first cause of the problem is... The second cause is...
Open-ended questions
allows respondents to answer however they want
Fallacy
an error in reasoning
hypothetical example
an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation
Disposition toward the topic
attitude towards the topic
demographic audience analysis
audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background
situational audience analysis
audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical settings for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion
stereotyping
creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike
Competence
how an audience regards a speaker's intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject
Character
how an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience
Types of Vivid Language
imagery and rhythm
Antithesis
juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel to structure example: Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.
Using Inclusive Language
language that doesn't stereotype or patronize, people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, etc.
Denotative Meaning of Word
literal/ dictionary meaning of a word or phrase
Connotative Meaning of Word
meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word/phrase
statistics
numerical data
Fixed alternative questions
offers fixed choice between 2 or more alternatives
Rhythm & Types
pattern of sound in speech created by choice & arrangement of words -parallelism -repetition -alliteration -antithesis
testimony
quotations or paraphrases used to support a point
quoting out of context
quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from words and phrases surrounding it
reasoning from specific instances
reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion
Causal Reasoning
reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects -avoid FALLACY of false cause
abstract words
refer to ideas/topics
concrete words
refer to tangible objects. call up mental sights, sounds, touches, smells, or tastes
repitition
reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clause or sentence
Scale questions
requires responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers
parallelism
similair arrangement of a pair/series of related words, phrases, sentences
Internal Summary
statement in the body of the speech that summarizes the speakers preceding point(s)
Transition
statement that finishes one thought and leads to the next Ex: "Now that we have" a clear understanding of the problem, "let me share" the solution with you.
evidence
supporting materials used to prove or disprove something
peer testimony
testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic *personal viewpoint
Credibility
the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.
initial credibility
the credibility of a speaker before he or she starts to speak
derived credibility
the credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech
terminal credibility
the credibility of the speaker at the end of the speech
need
the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from the current policy? -Must have burden of proof to support the "need"
supporting materials
the materials used to support a speaker's ideas
mental dialogue with the audience
the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech
burden of proof
the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary
target audience
the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade
persuasion
the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions
reasoning
the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence
plan
the second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a problem with the current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
practicality
the third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? will it create new and more serious problems?
Situation
the time and place in which speech communication occurs
paraphrase
to restate or summarize a source's ideas in one's own words *best when brief, witty, compelling, or they convey meaning better than you can
Imagery & Types
use vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas -simile metaphor
similie
uses "like" or "as" between things that are essentially different but have something in common
Use Language Accurately
words have shades of meaning